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2023.
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Article contents
The Insurance of Mass Murder: The Development of Slave Life Insurance Policies of Dutch Private Slave Ships, 1720–1780
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 August 2019
Abstract
Insurance on slaves, a financial spin-off effect of the slave trade, is not yet completely understood. This article investigates the development of the conditions of this kind of insurance in the Dutch Republic, Europe’s most important insurance sector before 1780. By analyzing various historical insurance documents from the period 1720–1780, it reveals that slave life insurance conditions became increasingly specific and standardized due to developments in general marine insurance and insurance debates on bloodily oppressed slave insurrections. This article shows how enslaved Africans indirectly influenced the insurance conditions by protesting, while insurers might have financially motivated the murder of enslaved Africans who attempted to escape. These findings provide insights into how Dutch insurers dealt with insuring humans with agency as commodities without agency and how slavery and the financial world in the eighteenth century were connected.
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Footnotes
This work is part of the Dutch research project Slaves, Commodities, and Logistics, supported by an Nederlands organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO) grant. In the preparation of this article, the author benefited from discussions and feedback from colleagues at Vrije Universiteit and International Institute of Social History. Many thanks go out to Prof. Dr. Karel Davids, Prof. Dr. Ulbe Bosma, Dr. Sabine Go, Dr. Pepijn Brandon, Gerhard de Kok, MA, Rianne Lurvink, AAG, and Han Poesiat, RA.
References
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Emmer, Piet E., and Lewis, Frank D.. “More Than Profits? The Contribution of the Slave Trade to the Dutch Economy: Assessing Fatah-Black and Van Rossum.” Slavery & Abolition, 37 (2016): 724–735.Google Scholar
Fatah-Black, Karwan, and van Rossum, Matthias. “Beyond Profitability: The Dutch Transatlantic Slave Trade and Its Economic Impact.” Slavery & Abolition, 36 (2015): 63–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fatah-Black, Karwan, and van Rossum, Matthias. “A Profitable Debate?” Slavery & Abolition, 37 (2016): 736–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Go, Sabine. “The Amsterdam Chamber of Insurance and Average: A New Phase in Formal Contract Enforcement (Late Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries).” Enterprise & Society, 14 (September 2013): 511–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Go, Sabine. “Amsterdam 1585–1790: Emergence, Dominance, and Decline.” In Marine Insurance: Origins and Institutions, 1300–1850, edited by Leonard, Adrian, 106–129. Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.Google Scholar
Lurvink, Karin. “Underwriting Slavery: Insurance and Slavery in the Dutch Republic (1718–1778).” Slavery & Abolition (March 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldham, James. “Insurance Litigation Involving the Zong and Other British Slave Ships, 1780–1807.” Journal of Legal History, 28 (November 2007): 299–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupprecht, Anita. “Excessive Memories: Slavery, Insurance and Resistance.” History Workshop Journal, 64 (Autumn 2007): 6–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupprecht, Anita. “‘Inherent Vice’: Marine Insurance, Slave Ship Rebellion and the Law.” Race & Class, 57 (2016): 31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryder, Karen. “‘To Realize Money Facilities.’ Slave Life Insurance, the Slave Trade, and Credit in the Old South.” In New Directions in Slavery Studies: Commodification, Community, and Comparison, edited by Forret, Jeff and Sears, Christine E., 53–70. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 2015.Google Scholar
Savitt, Todd L. “Slave Life Insurance in Virginia and North Carolina.” Journal of Southern History, 43 (November 1977): 583–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Unger, Willem Sysbrand. “Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van de Nederlandse slavenhandel.” NEHA-Jaarboek, 26 (1952–1954): 133–174.Google Scholar
Webster, Jane. “The Zong in the Context of the Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade.” Journal of Legal History, 28 (November 2007): 285–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swarns, Rachel L. “Insurance Policies on Slaves: New York Life’s Complicated Past.” New York Times, December 18, 2016.Google Scholar
Walsh, Conal. “Slave Descendants Sue Lloyd’s for Billions.” The Guardian, March 28, 2004.Google Scholar
“Average—Transaction Costs and Risk Management During the First Globalization (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries).” Project description, accessed May 31, 2018, https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/209144_en.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gales, Ben. (Delen van) Schadeverzekering. Eerste Concept. Slaven-en slavernijverzekering. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
“Slaves, Commodities and Logistics. The Direct and Indirect, the Immediate and Long-Term Economic Impact of Eighteenth-Century Dutch Republic Transatlantic Slave-Based Activities.” Project description, accessed May 25, 2018, www.nwo.nl/en/research-and-results/research-projects/i/67/10067.html.Google Scholar
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Collectie van Commissarissen van de Assurantie, Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief (NEHA). International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Gilder Lehrnman Collection. Gilder Lehrnman Institute of American History, www.gilderlehrman.org.Google Scholar
Handelingen der Staten-Generaal, Tweede Kamer. 1818 Staten-Generaal Digitaal (SD), www.statengeneraaldigitaal.nl.Google Scholar
Middelburgse Commercie Compagnie (MCC), access no. 20. Zeeuws Archief (ZA), Middelburg.Google Scholar
Notitie over de verzekering van slaven op slavenschepen, n.d., inv. no. 817, Archieven van de firma’s Coopstad & Rochussen, Ferrand Whaley & Jan Hudig e.a. te Rotterdam (Coopstad & Rochussen), access no. 68, SR.Google Scholar
Rekening van schade op het leven der slaven vervoerd per schip “de Indiaan” onder kapitein Willem Kaas van Afrika naar Amerika, 1792, Archief van de Assurantiebezorgers Wed. J. van Bosse en Zoon, access no. 562, SA.Google Scholar
Stukken betreffende clausulen voor polissen. 18e-eeuw-1802, inv. no. 392, Archief van de firma R. Mees en Zoonen, bankiers en makelaars in assurantiën te Rotterdam, access no. 305, SR.Google Scholar
Balai, Leo. Het slavenschip de Leusden. Slavenschepen en de West-Indische Compagnie, 1720–1738. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2011.Google Scholar
Baucom, Ian. Specters of the Atlantic. Finance Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Brahm, Felix, and Rosenhaft, Eve, eds. Slavery Hinterland: Transatlantic Slavery and Continental Europe, 1680–1850. Martlesham, UK: Boydell Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Clark, Geoffrey. Betting on Lives: The Culture of Life Insurance in England, 1695–1775. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Den Heijer, Henk. Goud, ivoor en slaven: scheepvaart en handel van de Tweede Westindische Compagnie op Afrika, 1674–1740. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1997.Google Scholar
Fatah-Black, Karwan. White Lies and Black Markets: Evading Metropolitan Authority in Colonial Suriname, 1650–1800. Leiden: Brill, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Go, Sabine. Marine Insurance in the Netherlands 1600–1870: A Comparative Institutional Approach. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inikori, Joseph E. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England. A Study in International Trade and Economic Development. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mees, R. Gedenkschrift van de firma R. Mees & Zoonen ter gelegenheid van haar tweehonderd jarig bestaan 1720–1920. Rotterdam: Mees, 1920.Google Scholar
Murphy, Sharon Ann. Investing in Life. Insurance in Antebellum America. Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Paesie, Ruud. Lorrendrayen op Africa: de illegale goederen-en slavenhandel op West-Africa tijdens het achttiende-eeuwse handelsmonopolie van de West-Indische Compagnie, 1700–1734. Amsterdam: Bataafse Leeuw, 2008.Google Scholar
Paesie, Ruud. Slavenopstand op de Neptunus: kroniek van een wanhoopsdaad. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2016.Google Scholar
Postma, Johannes. The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spooner, Frank C. Risks at Sea. Amsterdam Insurance and Maritime Europe, 1766–1780. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Eric Robert. If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Unger, Willem Sysbrand. Het archief der Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie. The Hague: Ministerie van O.K. en W. 1951.Google Scholar
Van Niekerk, J. P. The Development of the Principles of Insurance Law in the Netherlands from 1500–1800. Vols. 1 and 2. Johannesburg: Juta, 1998.Google Scholar
Vergouwen, Johannes Petrus. De geschiedenis der makelaardij in assurantiën hier te lande tot 1813. The Hague: Zuid-Hollandsche Uitgeversmij, 1945.Google Scholar
Walvin, James. The Zong: A Massacre, the Law and the End of Slavery. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Antunes, Catia, and Ribeiro da Silva, Filipa. “Amsterdam Merchants in the Slave Trade and African Commerce, 1580s–1670s.” Tijdschrift voor Sociale en Economische Geschiedenis, 9 (2012): 3–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, Tim. “Slavery, Insurance, and Sacrifice in the Black Atlantic.” In Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean, edited by Klein, Bernhard and Mackenthun, Gesa, 167–185. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Behrend, Stephen, Eltis, David, and Richardson, David. “The Costs of Coercion: African Agency in the Pre-Modern Atlantic World.” Economic History Review, n.s., 54 (2001): 454–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouk, Dan. “The Science of Difference: Developing Tools for Discrimination in the American Life Insurance Industry, 1830–1930.” Enterprise & Society, 12 (December 2011): 717–731.Google Scholar
Brandon, Pepijn, and Bosma, Ulbe. “De betekenis van de Atlantische slavernij voor de Nederlandse economie in de tweede helft van de achttiende eeuw.” The Low Countries Journal of Social History, 16 (2019): 5–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Cheryl Rhan-Hsin, and Simon, Gary. “Actuarial Issues in Insurance on Slaves in the United States South.” Journal of African American History, 89 (Autumn 2004): 348–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Geoffrey. “Slave Insurance in Late Medieval Catalonia.” In Sicherheit in der frühen neuzeit. Norm, praxis, representation, edited by Kampmann, Christoph, 418–429. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Combrink, Tamira. “From French Harbours to German Rivers: European Distribution of Sugar by the Dutch in the 18th Century.” In La diffusion des produits ultramarins en Europe: XVI–XVIII siècle, edited by Martin, Marquerite and Villeret, Maud, 39–56. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2018.Google Scholar
De Groot-Teunissen, Ineke. “Herman van Coopstad en Isaac Jacobus Rochussen: twee Rotterdamse slavenhandelaren in de 18e eeuw.” Rotterdams Jaarboekje 2005: 171–201.Google Scholar
Dehing, Pit, and Hart, Marjolein ’t. “Linking the Fortunes: Currency and Banking, 1550–1800.” In A Financial History of the Netherlands, edited by Hart, Marjolein ‘t, Jonker, Joost, and Luiten van Zanden, Jan, 37–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Kok, Gerhard. “Cursed Capital. The Economic Impact of the Transatlantic Slave Trade on Walcheren Around 1770.” Tijdschrift voor Sociale en Economische Geschiedenis 13 (2016): 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Kok, Gerhard. “Walcherse ketens: de trans-Atlantische slavenhandel en de economie van Walcheren, 1755–1780” PhD diss., Leiden University, 2019.Google Scholar
Emmer, Piet E., and Lewis, Frank D.. “More Than Profits? The Contribution of the Slave Trade to the Dutch Economy: Assessing Fatah-Black and Van Rossum.” Slavery & Abolition, 37 (2016): 724–735.Google Scholar
Fatah-Black, Karwan, and van Rossum, Matthias. “Beyond Profitability: The Dutch Transatlantic Slave Trade and Its Economic Impact.” Slavery & Abolition, 36 (2015): 63–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fatah-Black, Karwan, and van Rossum, Matthias. “A Profitable Debate?” Slavery & Abolition, 37 (2016): 736–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Go, Sabine. “The Amsterdam Chamber of Insurance and Average: A New Phase in Formal Contract Enforcement (Late Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries).” Enterprise & Society, 14 (September 2013): 511–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Go, Sabine. “Amsterdam 1585–1790: Emergence, Dominance, and Decline.” In Marine Insurance: Origins and Institutions, 1300–1850, edited by Leonard, Adrian, 106–129. Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.Google Scholar
Lurvink, Karin. “Underwriting Slavery: Insurance and Slavery in the Dutch Republic (1718–1778).” Slavery & Abolition (March 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldham, James. “Insurance Litigation Involving the Zong and Other British Slave Ships, 1780–1807.” Journal of Legal History, 28 (November 2007): 299–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupprecht, Anita. “Excessive Memories: Slavery, Insurance and Resistance.” History Workshop Journal, 64 (Autumn 2007): 6–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupprecht, Anita. “‘Inherent Vice’: Marine Insurance, Slave Ship Rebellion and the Law.” Race & Class, 57 (2016): 31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryder, Karen. “‘To Realize Money Facilities.’ Slave Life Insurance, the Slave Trade, and Credit in the Old South.” In New Directions in Slavery Studies: Commodification, Community, and Comparison, edited by Forret, Jeff and Sears, Christine E., 53–70. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 2015.Google Scholar
Savitt, Todd L. “Slave Life Insurance in Virginia and North Carolina.” Journal of Southern History, 43 (November 1977): 583–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Unger, Willem Sysbrand. “Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van de Nederlandse slavenhandel.” NEHA-Jaarboek, 26 (1952–1954): 133–174.Google Scholar
Webster, Jane. “The Zong in the Context of the Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade.” Journal of Legal History, 28 (November 2007): 285–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swarns, Rachel L. “Insurance Policies on Slaves: New York Life’s Complicated Past.” New York Times, December 18, 2016.Google Scholar
Walsh, Conal. “Slave Descendants Sue Lloyd’s for Billions.” The Guardian, March 28, 2004.Google Scholar
“Average—Transaction Costs and Risk Management During the First Globalization (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries).” Project description, accessed May 31, 2018, https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/209144_en.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gales, Ben. (Delen van) Schadeverzekering. Eerste Concept. Slaven-en slavernijverzekering. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
“Slaves, Commodities and Logistics. The Direct and Indirect, the Immediate and Long-Term Economic Impact of Eighteenth-Century Dutch Republic Transatlantic Slave-Based Activities.” Project description, accessed May 25, 2018, www.nwo.nl/en/research-and-results/research-projects/i/67/10067.html.Google Scholar
Assurantieboeken, inv. no. 223-4, Maatschappij van Assurantie, Discontering en Belening der Stad Rotterdam anno 1720 (MSR), access no. 199. Stadsarchief Rotterdam (SR), Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Authorisatien van Assuradeuren, benevens abondonnementen en insinuatiën 1709–1810, inv. no. 2925-3050, Archieven van de Schout en Schepenen, van de Schepenen en van de Subalterne Rechtbanken (S&S), access no. 5061. Stadsarchief Amsterdam (SA), Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Collectie van Commissarissen van de Assurantie, Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief (NEHA). International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Gilder Lehrnman Collection. Gilder Lehrnman Institute of American History, www.gilderlehrman.org.Google Scholar
Handelingen der Staten-Generaal, Tweede Kamer. 1818 Staten-Generaal Digitaal (SD), www.statengeneraaldigitaal.nl.Google Scholar
Middelburgse Commercie Compagnie (MCC), access no. 20. Zeeuws Archief (ZA), Middelburg.Google Scholar
Notitie over de verzekering van slaven op slavenschepen, n.d., inv. no. 817, Archieven van de firma’s Coopstad & Rochussen, Ferrand Whaley & Jan Hudig e.a. te Rotterdam (Coopstad & Rochussen), access no. 68, SR.Google Scholar
Rekening van schade op het leven der slaven vervoerd per schip “de Indiaan” onder kapitein Willem Kaas van Afrika naar Amerika, 1792, Archief van de Assurantiebezorgers Wed. J. van Bosse en Zoon, access no. 562, SA.Google Scholar
Stukken betreffende clausulen voor polissen. 18e-eeuw-1802, inv. no. 392, Archief van de firma R. Mees en Zoonen, bankiers en makelaars in assurantiën te Rotterdam, access no. 305, SR.Google Scholar
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