A preliminary survey of school-based water , sanitation , hygiene ( WASH ) resources and soil-transmitted helminthiasis in eight public schools in Odeda LGA , Ogun State , Nigeria

This cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess the status of school-based water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) resources and soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) in Odeda, Ogun State, Nigeria. The status and condition of WASH resources were determined in eight selected schools (three with WASH support and five without). Stool samples were also collected from 428 pupils from both school categories and screened for STH infections. Findings showed that water and sanitation conditions of WASH resource programming schools were better than those in schools without WASH support. However, pupils’ knowledge about STH infections and basic hygiene were not significantly different between both categories of school (P > 0·05). The prevalence of Hookworm, Ascariasis and Trichuriasis cases recorded were 26·2, 18·2 and 1·6% respectively, with an overall prevalence of 33·4%. By school categories, Ascariasis (14·9 vs 20·6), Hookworm (17·7 vs 32·0), Trichuriasis (1·7 vs 1·6) and, any STH prevalence (27·4 vs 37·5) were recorded for schools with WASH resource programming and those without respectively. A greater portion of the infected children 95 (66·4%) were from schools without WASH support. Our findings imply that WASH resource may have very positive impact on the control of STH among school children. However, there is need for improvement on coverage, adequacy and maintenance of WASH facilities in school. Introduction Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) is one of the commonest neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) worldwide and remains a public health problem in poor communities with enormous consequences for development (Tchuem Tchuenté et al. 2013). A recent analysis of NTDs in SSA (sub-Saharan Africa) identified Nigeria as a country with the greatest number of cases of STH infections (Hotez and Kamath, 2009) and ranked fourth or fifth globally behind China, India and Indonesia (DeSilva et al. 2003; Hotez and Ehrenberg, 2010; Lobo et al. 2011; Tchuem Tchuenté et al. 2013). Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm), Trichuris trichiura (whipworm), Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale (Hookworms) are the commonest intestinal nematodes causing STH infection (WHO, 2012). It has been estimated that one-half of 181 million school-aged children (SAC) is infected with one or some combination of these intestinal nematodes (Brooker et al. 2006). Recently, it was predicted that about 5·7 million of the 41·5 million SAC in Nigeria are infected with any species of the STH, with an overall predicted prevalence of 13·8% (Oluwole et al. 2015). Infections have been shown to contribute to deleterious health such as anaemia, growth stunting, protein-calorie malnutrition, fatigue and poor cognitive development (Hotez et al. 2008). The World Health Organization therefore recommended annual or bi-annual deworming of school children for STH with prevalence cut-offs of 20 or 50% in endemic school populations, respectively (WHO, 2002). However, deworming has not been able to prevent re-infection, especially in heavily contaminated endemic areas (Jia et al. 2012). Therefore, the integration of STH control with the provision of water, sanitation and hygiene education interventions (WASH) is thus been promoted as a complementary strategy for the elimination of STH (Freeman et al. 2013). WASH resource programming includes access to safe water, improved sanitation and good hygiene practices and education (Freeman et al. 2013). Implementation of WASH continues to gain momentum with increased commitment from governmental and non-governmental donors through the provision of funds and resources. UNICEF plays a leading role in providing access to potable water, improved sanitation and hygiene education in rural communities https://doi.org/10.1017/pao.2017.18 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 08 Jun 2019 at 22:34:07, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. and schools in Nigeria. This project commenced about a decade ago in Ogun State, due to lack of potable water and poor sanitation. However, the coverage is not universal (UNICEF, 2008; Mogaji et al. 2016). The maintenance of these resources is also left in the hands of the community members or schools where it is situated. Till recent, reasonable impact assessment of WASH intervention on schooling children is yet to be undertaken in Nigeria. This study therefore assesses the school-based WASH programme and burden of STH infections among schooling children in southwest Nigeria. Materials and methods Study area and selection of schools This survey was undertaken in eight public primary schools in Odeda area, near Abeokuta (the capital city) of Ogun State. Odeda is one of 20 administrative units in the State, and is the pilot unit for water, sanitation and hygiene resource programming. There were 106 public primary schools in the area in 2013. Study schools were selected using a stratified random sampling procedure. Schools were first categorized into two groups; those benefitting from WASH resource programming (n = 3) and those without (n = 103) (Mogaji et al. 2016). The three WASH resource programming school were purposively selected. The non-WASH resource programming schools were further stratified into five clusters based on proximity. Finally, random sampling was employed in the selection of a school per cluster. Eight primary schools were selected in total for the study (Table 1). Schools with WASH intervention had support from non-governmental organizations (i.e. UNICEF) in the provision of water pumps, toilet and urinal facilities and in some cases hand-washing facilities as compared with non-WASH resource programming schools. Since intervention was not randomized, this study was purely observational. The eight schools in the study were treated individually and not as clusters since they were not close to each other (Fig. 1). However, it is expected that children in the WASH resource programming schools would collectively depend on the provided WASH resource. Selection of study participants A total of 60 pupils per school were targeted for recruitment into the study, with a minimum number of 50 based on WHO guideline on survey for helminthiasis in schools (WHO, 2002). Selection of children in each school was carried out after stratification by their class grade from Primary 1 to 6. A quota was then allocated for each class grade with proportional allocation according to the number of students in each grade. Finally, the participating children were randomly selected. In schools where pupils were not up to 50 students, the entire pupils were encouraged to participate in the study. However, only 428 pupils consented to the study procedures and were recruited, hence giving roughly an unequal number of pupils selected across the schools. Ethics statement Ethical approval was granted by the ethical review board of Department of Public Health and Disease control, Ogun state Ministry of health. Permit to use the selected schools for sample collections were obtained from Ogun state Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and Ogun state Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (RUWATSAN). Consent was sought and obtained from parents and guardians of the pupils after they were duly informed of the research. However, pupils oral consent was obtained verbally and documented on a child assent form. Participants were provided with single dose 400 mg albendazole treatment after the study. Data collection Three different survey field forms were used during the survey procedures for data collection. The pupil’s form, the KAP form and the school form. The pupil’s form was used to obtain each child’s demographic information (name, date of birth, age and sex of the child). A questionnaire was administered on the children on Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP) to obtain information on helminthiasis, sanitation, personal and environmental hygiene. A school form was used to assess the status and conditions of water, sanitation and hygiene. These include the type of water supply, number of water source, condition and type of latrines, number of latrines, latrines per population ratio, gendersegregated toilets, availability of soap for hand washing, and the presence of garbage piles around the school premises. Determination of STH burden A single stool sample was collected from each pupil, processed within 2 h after collection using sodium acetate-acetic acid formalin concentration method (SAF-ether) and examined for intestinal ova of STH. Two slides were prepared from 1 g of each stool sample Table 1. List and characteristic of study schools Year of establishment Settlement Population Male (%) Female (%) WASH resources programming school OLG primary school Alabata 1951 Rural 425 242 (57) 183 (43) Baptist Day primary school Obete 1942 Rural 138 79 (57) 59 (43) St. Saviours primary school Olugbo 1955 Urban 444 212 (48) 232 (52) Non-WASH resources programming school St. Mary primary school Osiele 1885 Urban 628 293 (47) 335 (53) Community primary school Aaya 1982 Rural 196 89 (45) 107 (55) OLG primary school Obantoko 1955 Urban 915 466 (51) 449 (49) St. James primary school Orile 1934 Urban 492 265 (54) 227 (46) St. Anthony primary school Ijemo 1948 Rural 245 128 (52) 117 (48) Total 3483 1774 1709 2 H.O. Mogaji et al. https://doi.org/10.1017/pao.2017.18 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 54.70.40.11, on 08 Jun 2019 at 22:34:07, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. collected for microscopy. Helminth eggs were counted for each species of STH, and the mean number of egg per gram (EPG) of stool was recorded for the examined person, from which the infection intensity estimate for the school was computed. Scoring of status and condition of WASH resources The type, conditions, adequacy and usage of water, sanitation and hygiene resource in both th


Introduction
Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) is one of the commonest neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) worldwide and remains a public health problem in poor communities with enormous consequences for development (Tchuem Tchuenté et al. 2013).A recent analysis of NTDs in SSA (sub-Saharan Africa) identified Nigeria as a country with the greatest number of cases of STH infections (Hotez and Kamath, 2009) and ranked fourth or fifth globally behind China, India and Indonesia (DeSilva et al. 2003;Hotez and Ehrenberg, 2010;Lobo et al. 2011;Tchuem Tchuenté et al. 2013).
Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm), Trichuris trichiura (whipworm), Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale (Hookworms) are the commonest intestinal nematodes causing STH infection (WHO, 2012).It has been estimated that one-half of 181 million school-aged children (SAC) is infected with one or some combination of these intestinal nematodes (Brooker et al. 2006).Recently, it was predicted that about 5•7 million of the 41•5 million SAC in Nigeria are infected with any species of the STH, with an overall predicted prevalence of 13•8% (Oluwole et al. 2015).Infections have been shown to contribute to deleterious health such as anaemia, growth stunting, protein-calorie malnutrition, fatigue and poor cognitive development (Hotez et al. 2008).The World Health Organization therefore recommended annual or bi-annual deworming of school children for STH with prevalence cut-offs of 20 or 50% in endemic school populations, respectively (WHO, 2002).However, deworming has not been able to prevent re-infection, especially in heavily contaminated endemic areas (Jia et al. 2012).Therefore, the integration of STH control with the provision of water, sanitation and hygiene education interventions (WASH) is thus been promoted as a complementary strategy for the elimination of STH (Freeman et al. 2013).
WASH resource programming includes access to safe water, improved sanitation and good hygiene practices and education (Freeman et al. 2013).Implementation of WASH continues to gain momentum with increased commitment from governmental and non-governmental donors through the provision of funds and resources.UNICEF plays a leading role in providing access to potable water, improved sanitation and hygiene education in rural communities and schools in Nigeria.This project commenced about a decade ago in Ogun State, due to lack of potable water and poor sanitation.However, the coverage is not universal (UNICEF, 2008;Mogaji et al. 2016).The maintenance of these resources is also left in the hands of the community members or schools where it is situated.Till recent, reasonable impact assessment of WASH intervention on schooling children is yet to be undertaken in Nigeria.This study therefore assesses the school-based WASH programme and burden of STH infections among schooling children in southwest Nigeria.

Study area and selection of schools
This survey was undertaken in eight public primary schools in Odeda area, near Abeokuta (the capital city) of Ogun State.Odeda is one of 20 administrative units in the State, and is the pilot unit for water, sanitation and hygiene resource programming.There were 106 public primary schools in the area in 2013.Study schools were selected using a stratified random sampling procedure.Schools were first categorized into two groups; those benefitting from WASH resource programming (n = 3) and those without (n = 103) (Mogaji et al. 2016).The three WASH resource programming school were purposively selected.The non-WASH resource programming schools were further stratified into five clusters based on proximity.Finally, random sampling was employed in the selection of a school per cluster.Eight primary schools were selected in total for the study (Table 1).Schools with WASH intervention had support from non-governmental organizations (i.e.UNICEF) in the provision of water pumps, toilet and urinal facilities and in some cases hand-washing facilities as compared with non-WASH resource programming schools.Since intervention was not randomized, this study was purely observational.The eight schools in the study were treated individually and not as clusters since they were not close to each other (Fig. 1).However, it is expected that children in the WASH resource programming schools would collectively depend on the provided WASH resource.

Selection of study participants
A total of 60 pupils per school were targeted for recruitment into the study, with a minimum number of 50 based on WHO guideline on survey for helminthiasis in schools (WHO, 2002).Selection of children in each school was carried out after stratification by their class grade from Primary 1 to 6.A quota was then allocated for each class grade with proportional allocation according to the number of students in each grade.Finally, the participating children were randomly selected.In schools where pupils were not up to 50 students, the entire pupils were encouraged to participate in the study.However, only 428 pupils consented to the study procedures and were recruited, hence giving roughly an unequal number of pupils selected across the schools.

Ethics statement
Ethical approval was granted by the ethical review board of Department of Public Health and Disease control, Ogun state Ministry of health.Permit to use the selected schools for sample collections were obtained from Ogun state Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and Ogun state Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (RUWATSAN).Consent was sought and obtained from parents and guardians of the pupils after they were duly informed of the research.However, pupils oral consent was obtained verbally and documented on a child assent form.Participants were provided with single dose 400 mg albendazole treatment after the study.

Data collection
Three different survey field forms were used during the survey procedures for data collection.The pupil's form, the KAP form and the school form.The pupil's form was used to obtain each child's demographic information (name, date of birth, age and sex of the child).A questionnaire was administered on the children on Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP) to obtain information on helminthiasis, sanitation, personal and environmental hygiene.A school form was used to assess the status and conditions of water, sanitation and hygiene.These include the type of water supply, number of water source, condition and type of latrines, number of latrines, latrines per population ratio, gendersegregated toilets, availability of soap for hand washing, and the presence of garbage piles around the school premises.

Determination of STH burden
A single stool sample was collected from each pupil, processed within 2 h after collection using sodium acetate-acetic acid formalin concentration method (SAF-ether) and examined for intestinal ova of STH.Two slides were prepared from 1 g of each stool sample collected for microscopy.Helminth eggs were counted for each species of STH, and the mean number of egg per gram (EPG) of stool was recorded for the examined person, from which the infection intensity estimate for the school was computed.

Scoring of status and condition of WASH resources
The type, conditions, adequacy and usage of water, sanitation and hygiene resource in both the WASH resource programming schools and non-WASH resource programming schools were assessed using a WHO/UNICEF recommended checklist for improved WASH interventions in schools (Adams et al. 2009).
The status and condition of the WASH resources were carefully observed during field visitations and those that met the WHO/ UNICEF set standards (i.e.improved conditions) were scored one point, while those that did not meet the set standards were scored zero or a negative point as appropriate.For each WASH resource component (i.e.water component, sanitation component and hygiene component), a cumulative test score was computed and used for comparison using chi-square (χ 2 ) statistics (Table 2).

Data analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study population.The number of EPG of stool was transformed using log (n + 1) of raw count.The differences in prevalence and intensity

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of STH infections between WASH and non-WASH resource programming schools were determined using χ 2 statistics, t-test and analysis of variance, respectively.Significance was set at P ⩽ 0•05.

Status and condition of safe water supply
All the WASH resources programming schools had functional hand pump boreholes.Two out of five (40•0%) of the non-WASH resource programming schools also had similar boreholes, though non-functioning.A cumulative score of 15 (100%) for safe water supply and conditions was recorded in WASH resource programming schools, whereas a cumulative score of 4 (16•0%) was recorded in the non-WASH resource programming schools.There was significant difference (P < 0•001) in safe water supply between the two categories of school (Table 4).

Status and condition of environmental hygiene resource
All the three WASH resource programming schools had garbage cans in their school premises.Whereas only one out of the five non-WASH resource programming school had garbage cans.Drinking water buckets with common drinking cups were absent in the classrooms of all schools surveyed (Table 6).A negative scoring method was employed under the item 'usage of common cups'.This is simply because using common cups is not a good hygienic practice.So, if common cups were present in the classrooms, we deducted a point from their hygienic score (Table 6).
The cumulative test score for the environmental hygiene of WASH resource programming schools was 11 (73•3%), while seven (26•9%) was recorded for non-WASH resources programming schools.There was a significant difference (P = 0•004) in the status and condition of environmental hygiene between the two categories.

School of knowledge, attitudes and practices
School children from non-WASH resource programming schools (n = 120, 47•4%) knew that human feces and water can harbour intestinal worms compared with children (n = 69, 39•4%) from WASH resource programming schools.However, this knowledge was not significantly different (P = 0•1) between groups (Fig. 2).Hygienic practices such as nail biting, finger sucking, pica and wearing of shoes differ in both group of schools.School children from non-WASH resources programming schools (n = 84, 33•2%) had more clean fingernails, which was significantly different (P <
Baptist Day primary school Obete St. Saviours primary school Olugbo ).There was a significant statistical difference between the use of footwear by children and school categories (P < 0•001) (Fig. 3).

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hookworms, A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura was 26•2, 18•2 and 1•6%, respectively.Comparison of STH prevalence between the two categories of schools revealed 37•5% in non-WASH resource programming schools compared with 27•4% in WASH resource programming schools.There was a significant difference in STH prevalence between the categories of studied schools (P < 0•001) (Table 7).
Ascaris lumbricoides mean infection intensities were higher in WASH resource programming schools (0•7237), compared with non-WASH resource programming schools (0•5497), although there was no significant difference (P = 0•2).Intensities of Trichuriasis (0•1193) and hookworm (0•6097) were higher in non-WASH resource programming schools compared with WASH resource programming schools.A significant difference (P = 0•005) was recorded for the intensity of hookworm infection between the school categories (Table 8).

Discussion
The overall prevalence reported for STH infection in this study reflects the status of helminthiasis morbidity in the study area, and reiterates the importance of complimenting school-based deworming activities with the provision of safe water, sanitation and hygiene resource (Freeman et al. 2013;Campbell et al. 2014).The lower prevalence of STH infections observed among pupils from WASH resources programming schools compared with those from non-WASH resource programming schools, further provides evidence to support the ongoing discussion that WASH resources may have secondary influence on the transmission of STH (Freeman et al. 2012(Freeman et al. , 2013;;Ziegelbauer et al. 2012;Campbell et al. 2014).However, STH prevalence levels in WASH resourced schools are still above mandatory treatment levels (i.e.20%).In fact, the highest intensity estimate for STH infection was recorded in one of the WASH resource schools.This is an indication of incessant transmission despite the availability of WASH resource.It is therefore reasonable that reduction in the transmission of STH among SAC cannot be achieved or sustained only by providing WASH resources.Inadequate numbers of latrines, limited accessibility and lack of maintenance by school management have been documented as factors that predisposes pupils to defecation on open grounds and nearby bushes (Xuan et al. 2012).It is therefore important to take into cognizance, issues of adequacy and maintenance of WASH resources to ensure sustained and effective intervention effect on STH transmission and control.
Despite the recommendation of WHO on '1 toilet hole for 50 male or 30 female pupils, respectively, only one out of the eight schools surveyed met the above recommendation (Adams et al. 2009).Also, not all available toilet facilities were accessible to the pupils, the clean and well-maintained ones were kept for the teachers.Segregating toilets per gender is therefore not feasible since toilets are inadequate and inaccessible to pupils.This indicates the need for more provision and maintenance of toilets in the public primary school's system.In addition, the consequences of poor sanitary conditions on hookworm transmission are well established; most especially in areas where wearing of footwear is not a common habit.Although the cumulative sanitation scores in the resourced and non-resourced schools appear to be equivalent, the non-WASH resourced schools had much greater percentage of children-wearing shoes (84%); yet, hookworm infection was much higher in non-resourced schools.Wearing of shoes by SAC is not a common habit in typical rural African communities.School children mostly wear shoes when they go to school and as well they pull them off while playing on school fields.
Water is a critical component of WASH resources.It is important for hand washing especially when soap is available.However, no soaps were seen in the schools surveyed.For non-WASH resource programming schools, water was not available in the school premises and pupils searched for water at locations outside the school premises, thus exposing themselves to infections transmitted through unsafe water sources (Lorna et al. 2005).Lack of access to safe water may have contributed to the high burden of STH infections recorded among children attending nonintervention schools.Furthermore, the scarcity of water resource or its inadequate quantity in non-WASH resource programming schools may not meet the WHO recommendation of 'at least 5 L of water' per children in day-schools.This may be a factor promoting transmission of STH when children engage in poor hygienic practices such as nail biting and finger sucking after using the toilets.
Finally, majority of the pupils were ignorant of the fact that water and human feces can harbour helminth's eggs.In fact, children from WASH resources programming schools were not better off in terms of knowledge when compared with their counterpart in non-WASH schools.This observation was unexpected and may be an indicator of the lack of poor hygiene and sanitation education in WASH resource programming schools.The higher infection rates recorded in non-WASH resource programming schools despite their little knowledge about STH transmission reflects how insignificant the results of such knowledge could be on STH occurrence without WASH intervention.Effective hygiene education should be incorporated into the primary school curriculum, as this will help promote long-term positive behavioural changes among pupil both in school and at home (Jia et al. 2012;Nasr et al. 2013).

Concluding remarks
Our study shows that there was a reduction in helminthiasis burden in schools benefitting from WASH resources compared with those schools not benefitting.However, these differences may also have been influenced by factors, such as the location of schools, soil type, precipitation, vegetation and temperature, which were not part of this study.Nevertheless, this study portrays the potentials of sustainable WASH resource programming implementation on reduction of morbidity and transmission of STH in public primary schools'.

Fig. 2 .
Fig. 2. Knowledge of study participants about transmission of STH infections.

Table 1 .
List and characteristic of study schools total of 38 toilets were assessed, 19 (50%) each in both categories.Of the 38 toilets, only 25 (66%) were in use by the children in all the schools; 11 (44•0%) belonging to WASH resource programming schools and 14 (56•0%) in non-resource programming schools.In all the schools, only 13 (34•2%) of the toilets were clean (without foul odour or feces around the pit-hole) and they all belonged to non-resource programming schools.

Table 3 .
Demography of study participant across public primary schools surveyed NE, Number examined.

Table 4 .
Water supply conditions of Study schools and Cummulative Test Scores Sanitation condition of study schools and cumulative test scores

Table 6 .
Environmental hygiene condition of study schools and cumulative test scores

Table 7 .
Prevalence of STH infections among the study participants Water cumulative score; S, Sanitation cumulative score; H, Hygiene cumulative score; NE, Number examined; NI, Number infected. W,

Table 8 .
Intensity of STH infections among the study participants Mean values with same superscript across the same column are not significantly different at P < 0•05, EPG: egg per gram of feces.