1 See especially Pike, Fredrick B., Chile and the United States, 1880–1962: The Emergence of Chile’s Social Crisis and the Challenge to United States Diplomacy (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1963), pp. 204–208 Google Scholar; Potashnik, Michael, “Nacismo: National Socialism in Chile, 1932–1938” (unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1974)Google Scholar; and Young, George F. W., “Jorge Gonzalez von Marées Chief of Chilean Nacism,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 11 (1974), pp. 309–333.Google Scholar

2 Sznajder, Mario, “El movimiento nacional-socialista: Antisemitismo y movilización política en Chile en la década del treinta,” Coloquio 21(1989), pp. 61–70 Google Scholar; Sznajder, , “A Case of Non-European Fascism:Chilean National Socialism,” Journal of Contemporary History 28:2 (April 1993), pp. 269–296 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; González, Rodrigo Alliende and Edwards, Maria Piedad Alliende, El Jefe: La vida de Jorge Gonzélez von Marées (Santiago: Los Castaños, 1990)Google Scholar; Etchepare, Jaime and Stewart, Hamish I., “Nazism in Chile: A Particular Type of Fascism in South America,” Journal of Contemporary History 30:4 (October 1995),pp. 577–605 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Deutsch, Sandra McGee, Las Derechas: The Extreme Right in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, 1890–1939 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), pp. 143–192.Google Scholar

3 Sznajder (“Chilean National Socialism,” p. 291) claims, “a high percentage of the MNS activists were of German extraction,” while Deutsch (Derechas, p. 161), relying upon Gonzalez, states “that only 5 percent of party members were of German descent.” For similarities, cf. Potashnik, “Nacismo,ȁ pp. 168–170, and, with reservations, Sznajder, “Chilean National Socialism,” pp. 289–291.

4 Gaudig, and Veit, , “¡…y mañana el mundo entero! Antecedentes para la historia del nacionalsocialismo en Chile,” Araucaria de Chile 41 (1988), pp. 99–117 Google Scholar. A slightly updated version of the article was published under the title “‘…und morgen die ganze Welt!’ Der Nationalsozialismus in Chile 1932–1943,” Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 42:6 (June 1994), pp. 507–524; and Müller, , Nationalsozialismus in Lateinamerika: Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP in Argentinien, Brasilien, Chile und Mexiko, 1931–1945 (Stuttgart: Hans-Dieter Heinz, 1997), pp. 216–217, 241–251.Google Scholar

5 de la Cerda, María Soledad, Chile y los hombres del Tercer Reich (Santiago: Sudamericana, 2000), p. 22 Google Scholar. The other books that address this issue are Chile and the Nazis: From Hitler to Pinochet by Graeme S. Mount (Montreal/London: Black Rose Books, 2002), and Los nazis en Chile by Farias, Victor (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 2000)Google Scholar. Neither of them contains any relevant information on the topics addressed in this article. Mount, for instance, is not even aware of the MNS’s existence. He only mentions the Vanguardia Popular Socialista, its successor organization, describing it as “Chile’s own Nazi party.” See Mount, Chile, p. 15.

6 For Díaz Valderrama’s pro-Nazi sentiments, see Farias, Los nazis, pp. 369–383.

7 Cf. Potashnik, “Nacismo,” p. 56; and Young, “González,” pp. 315–316. On González’s background, see Alliende González and Alliende Edwards, Jefe, pp. 23–43.

8 For its publications, see Gaudig and Veit, “Nationalsozialismus,” p. 509, n. 6. Contrary to Farías’s claim (Los nazis, p. 369), the group was not the first fascist faction to emerge in Chile. Nor did the group attract the special attention of German diplomats. As a matter of fact, German diplomats did not mention it in one single report.

9 Young, “González,” p. 316. On Keller’s career and intellectual development until 1932, see Klein, Marcus, “The Making of an Unlikely Chilean Fascist: Reflections on the Intellectual Development and Political Work of Carlos Keller Rueff,” Historia 35 (2002), pp. 189–201 Google Scholar; and Romero, Vicente, “ Carlos Keller (Chilien, 1898–1974. Polygraphe, politicien, technocrate),” Histoire et Sociétés de l’Amérique latine, 2:2 (May 1994), pp. 109–126.Google Scholar

10 Deutsch, Derechas, p. 191. For the concept of fascism underlying this article, see Payne, Stanley G., A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (London: UCL-Press, 1995), pp. 4–19, 487–95Google Scholar; Griffin, Roger, “General Introduction,” in Fascism, , edited by Griffin, Roger (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 2–11 Google Scholar; Griffin, , “The Primacy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consensus within Fascist Studies,” Journal of Contemporary History 37:1 (January 2002), pp. 21–43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Eatwell, Roger, Fascism: A History (London: Vintage, 1996), p. 11.Google Scholar

11 Página Nacional-Socialista, El Imparcial, July 12, 1932, p. 2. For a similar statement, see ibid., November 29, 1932, p. 6.

12 Ibid., November 18, 1932, p. 2; Servicio de Investigaciones, Identificación y Pasaportes, Memo-rándum no. 122, Santiago, May 2, 1933, Archivo Nacional, Santiago, Archivo del Ministerio del Interior (hereafter cited as AN, AMI), 8382 Investigaciones Confidenciales, 1933. For similarities, see Alliende González and Alliende Edwards, Jefe, pp. 55–56.

13 Keller in Acción Chilena (Santiago) 4:1 (September 1935), pp. 26–40.

14 Movimiento Nacional-Socialista de Chile, Declaraciones fundamentales—Plan de Acción—Organización—Programa (Santiago: La Tracción, 1932), pp. 9–10 Google Scholar. For Feder, see Tyrell, Albrecht, “3. Gottfried Feder—Der gescheiterte Programmatiker,” in Die braune Elite. 22 biographische Skizzen, edited by Smelser, Ronald and Zitelmann, Rainer (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1988), pp. 28–40.Google Scholar

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16 Miller, Nicola, In the Shadow of the State: Intellectuals and the Quest for National Identity in Twentieth-Century Spanish America (London/New York: Verso, 1999), p. 232 Google Scholar. For a discussion of the main proponents of Chile’s decline, cf. Gazmuri, Cristiín, “La idea de decadencia nacional y el pensamiento político conservador chileno en el siglo XX,” Estudios Sociale, 28-29:2-3 (1981), pp. 33–54.Google Scholar

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18 Gazmuri, Cristián, “Testimonios de una crisis,” in El Chile del centenario, los ensayistas de la crisis, edited by Gazmuri, (Santiago: Pontifica Universidad Católica de Chile, 2001), p. 18, n. 23.Google Scholar

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20 Investigaciones, Servicio de, Identificación y Pasaportes, Memoranda no. 219, Santiago, August 7, 1933; and no. 239 Google Scholar, Santiago, August 27, 1933, AN, AMI, 8382 Investigaciones Confidenciales, 1933.

21 Cf. Cámara de Diputados, Sesiones Ordinarias 1933, August 28, 1933, pp. 2612–2613.

22 Ibid., September 5, 1933, pp. 2943, 2946.

23 Deutsch, Derechas, p. 157.

24 Trabajo, August 31, 1933, p. 1.

25 Ibid., February 15, 1934, p. 4, italics in the original. See also issue of May 11, 1933, p. 5.

26 González, in Hoy (Santiago), October 20, 1933, p. 22 Google Scholar. For similar statement, see Trabajo, February 15, 1934, p. 3.

27 See Keller in Acción Chilena 2:5 (May 1934), pp. 129–160; González, , La concepción nacista del estado (Santiago: Juan Yunis S., 1934), pp. 15, 85Google Scholar; and González’s, speeches in Osomo, La Unión und Valdivia in Humberto Arriagada Valdivieso (General de Carabineros y Director) to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, June 12, 1934 Google Scholar, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 176–356, 1934.

28 González, concepción nacista (1934), pp. 74–75; and Trabajo, May 17, 1934, p. 3. For Portales, cf. González, concepción nacista (1934), pp. 15, 32, 85; and Keller in Acción Chilena 2:5 (May 1934), pp. 129–160.

29 González in Trabajo, May 17, 1934, p. 3.

30 González, concepción nacista (1934), pp. 74–75.

31 Etchepare and Stewart, “Nazism,” p. 579.

32 Cf. José, ; Díaz Nieva, Chile: de la Falange Nacional a la Democracia Cristiana (Madrid: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, 2000), pp. 72–77.Google Scholar

33 For a critical analysis of Eyzaguirre, see Ruiz, Carlos, “Corporativismo e hispanismo en la obra de Jaime Eyzaguirre,” in Renato Cristi and Carlos Ruiz, El pensamiento conservador en Chile (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1992), pp. 67–100 Google Scholar. For a more sympathetic view, see Góngora, Álvaro, Taille, Alexandrine de la, and Vial, Gonzalo, Jaime Eyzaguirre en su tiempo (Santiago: Universidad Finis Terrae, 2002).Google Scholar

34 See Korherr, Richard, “Mussolini,” Acción Chilena 1:1 (January 1934), pp. 19–23 Google Scholar; Hans Hinkel, “Hitler,” ibid. 1:1 (January 1934), pp. 24–26; G. Rinzetti, “La organización corporativa de Italia,” ibid. 1:3 (February 1934), pp. 76–82; Buch, “El Fuehrer,” ibid. 1:6 (March 1934), pp. 181–183; G. Kohn, “Nueva organización del trabajo en Alemania,” ibid. 1:9 (March 1934), pp. 270–273;AlfredGerberding, “S.A. y S.A.,” ibid. 1:11 (April 1934), pp. 343–344; and Dietrich, “Filosofia del nacional-socialismo,” ibid. 3:2 (May 1935), pp. 69–76.

35 Acción Chilena 2:8 (September 1934), pp. 361–364. Until August 1934 it had been published as Mitteilungsblatt der NSDAP-Landesgruppe Chile.

36 Cf. Hoy, August 4, 1933, pp. 25–26; and Acción Chilena 6:1 (July 1937), pp. 2, 4 and 5.

37 Westkiisten-Beobachter (Santiago), December 13,1934, p. 69. For speakers, see Deutsche Zeitung fiir Chile (Santiago), December 3, 1934, p. 2.

38 Trabajo, January 31, 1935, p. 4; and Zig-Zag (Santiago), September 11, 1936, p. 75.

39 Investigaciones, Servicio de, Identificación y Pasaportes, Memorándum no. 357, Santiago, December 23, 1933 Google Scholar, AN, AMI, 8383 Investigaciones Confidenciales, 1933.

40 Investigaciones, Servicio de, Identificación y Pasaportes, Memorándum “Movimiento Nacional Socialista,” Santiago, June 6, 1934, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 564, 1934.Google Scholar

41 M., Alvaro Bombal (Intendente Suplente de Valdivia) to Ministro del Interior, Valdivia, June 5, 1934 Google Scholar; Fernández, Miguel Fernández (Subcomisario Jefe Provincial de Investigaciones) to Intendente de la Provincia, Los Angeles, June 6, 1934 Google Scholar; Amagada, Humberto Valdivieso to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, June 8, 1934 Google Scholar; Arriagada, Valdivieso to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, June 13, 1934 Google Scholar; and Ramirez, Manuel Besoain (Coronel y Subdirector, Carabineros de Chile, Dirección General) to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, July 4, 1934, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 176–356, 1934.Google Scholar

42 As quoted in Potashnik, “Nacismo,” p. 247. For reactions, cf. Arriagada, Valdivieso to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, June 8, 1934, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 176–356, 1934.Google Scholar

43 Cf. Trabajo, April 11, 1935, p. 1.

44 The second alderman was elected in Angol. See Acción Chilena 4:2 (October 1935), p. 88.

45 Schoen, Wilhelm von (German Ambassador) to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, 22 May 1935 Google Scholar, Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes, Berlin (hereafter cited as PA AA), R 79094.

46 Cf. Blancpain, Jean-Pierre, Les Allemands au Chili (1816-1945) (Cologne/Vienna: Böhlau, 1974)Google Scholar; and Young, George F.W., The Germans in Chile: Immigration and Colonization, 1849–1914 (Staten Island: Center for Migration Studies New York, 1974).Google Scholar

47 Converse, Christel K., “Culture and Nationalism Among the German-Chileans in the 1930s,” MACLAS Latin American Essays 4 (1990), p. 117.Google Scholar

48 Deutsche Zeitung für Chile, October 20, 1910, p. 3, as quoted in Soto, Katharina Tietze de, Deutsche Einwanderung in die chilenische Provinz Concepción 1870–1930 (Frankfurt on the Main: Vervuert, 1999), pp. 95–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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50 Gaudig and Veit (“antecedentes,” p. 107) state that around 35,000 to 40,000 Germans and their descendants lived in Chile in 1938. But some put the number of ethnic Germans as high as 150,000 — for instance, Ilg, Karl, Das Deutschtum in Chile und Argentinien (Vienna: Österreichische Landsmannschaft, 1982), p. 55 Google Scholar; Gunther, John, Inside Latin America (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1942), p. 266 Google Scholar; and Herring, Hubert, Good Neighbors: Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Seventeen Other Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), p. 232.Google Scholar The Handwörterbuch des Grenzund Auslanddeutschtums, edited by Petersen, Carl and Scheel, Otto (Breslau: Ferdinand Hirt, 1936), vol. 2, p. 17 Google Scholar, states that 20,000 to 25,000 ethnic Germans and German nationals lived in the country at the time. Based on the census carried out by the Deutsch-Chilenischer Bund in 1917, which listed 25,322 persons defining themselves as ethnic Germans, the figure indicated by Gaudig and Veit seems the most plausible one.

51 Converse, “Culture,” p. 117.

52 Converse, , “The Rise and Fall of Nazi Influence Among the German-Chileans” (unpubl. Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 1990), p. 30 Google Scholar; and “Culture and Nationalism,” p. 120.

53 Gaudig, and Veit, , Der Widerschein des Nazismus: Das Bild des Nationalsozialismus in der deutschsprachigen Presse Argentiniens, Brasiliens und Chiles 1932-1945 (Berlin: WVB, 1997), p. 352 Google Scholar; and Gaudig and Veit, “Nationalsozialismus,” p. 521.

54 Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, p.369; Müller, Auslandsorganisation, pp. 208–209; and Converse, “Culture,” p. 120.

55 Blancpain, , Migrations et mémoire germaniques en Amérique Latine à l'époque contemporaine: contribution à l’étude de l’expansion allemande outre-mer (Strasbourg: Presses Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1994), p. 286.Google Scholar See also Müller, Auslandsorganisation, pp. 162–164.

56 Converse, “Rise and Fall,” p. 491.

57 For figures, see Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 127.

58 El Rayo (Valdivia), May 3, 1935, p. 3. For details on the DJC, see Müller, Auslandsorganisation, pp. 188–193; and Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, pp. 442–450.

59 Apart from one brief reference in a telegram from February 1937, German diplomats, who closely monitored anti-Semitic manifestations in Chile and elsewhere in Latin America, did not mention anti-Semitism as one of the defining characteristics of the MNS. See Schoen to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, 16 February 1937, PAAA, R 104946.

60 Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, pp. 278–279; and Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 209.

61 Deutsche Monatshefte für Chile (Concepción) 6:6 (June 1926), pp. 215–216. For a discussion of the DBC’s activities during the 1920s, cf. Rinke, Stefan, “Las relaciones germano-chilenos, 1918–1933,” Historia 31 (1998), pp. 240–250, 265–275.Google Scholar

62 Deutsche Monatshefte für Chile 5:9 (September 1925), pp. 261–262.

63 See Klein, “Rueff,” pp. 190–196.

64 Converse, “Culture,” p. 117.

65 See Schwarzenberg, ’s statement in Unsere Welt (Valdivia) 1:8 (July 1935), no page numbers.Google Scholar

66 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 244. According to Nazi party officials, in the mid-1930s only around a dozen German-Chileans belonged to the local organization of the NSDAR See ibid., p. 360. For assessment, see Converse, “Rise and Fall,” p. 479.

67 Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, pp. 112–113.

68 Deutscher Jugendbund Chile to Reichsminister Dr. Goebbels, Valdivia, May 8, 1933, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter cited as BA Koblenz), R 57 neu, 707. The signature is illegible.

69 Alfredo Silva Cortes (Indentente de Chiloé) to Ministro del Interior, Puerto Montt, May 8, 1935, AN, AMI, 8905 Oficios Confidenciales, 1–75, 1935; and El Rayo, May 3, 1935, p. 3.

70 Trabajo, July 6, 1935, p. 3.

71 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 192.

72 Gaudig and Veit, “Nationalsozialismus,” p. 507.

73 For its ideology, see “Der Jugenbund marschiert…,” supplement to Deutsche Zeitung für Chile, [October 1933], [p. 1]; and Jugendbund Chile, Deutscher, “Arbeit im deutschen Jugendbund Chiles,” Valdivia, March 29, 1934, BA Koblenz, R 57 neu, 707 Google Scholar. There is no evidence that either Schwarzenberg or the local group of the NSDAP attempted to infiltrate the MNS, and that this attempt caused the confrontation, as both Potashnik (“Nacismo,” p. 170) and Farías (Los nazis, p. 156, n. 4) claim, without providing any evidence.

74 Unsere Welt 1:8 (July 1935), no page numbers. See also the article “Auszüge aus den Schriften Addos,” ibid., pp. 21–22.

75 Deutscher Sonntagsbote (Padre de las Casas), May 18, 1933, p. 692, as quoted in Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, p. 213. Schwarzenberg, summarized his ideology in Das Deutschtum in Südamerika (Stuttgart: Deutsches Ausland-Institut, 1935).Google Scholar

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77 See Gaudig and Veit, Widerschein, pp. 111, 255–256, 356, 369.

78 For details of the journey and the delegation’s stay in Germany, see Deutsche Zeitung für Chile, July 2, 1935, p. 1; July 29, 1935, p. 1; August 10, 1935, p. 10; November 2, 1935, p. 4; and Unsere Welt 1:7 (June 1935), pp. 12–13.

79 Cf. Schoen to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, May 9, 1935, PA AA, R 79123.Google Scholar

80 See Trabajo, July 6, 1935, p. 3; July 24, 1935, p. 3; August 3, 1935, p. 3; August 10, 1935, pp. 12; and August 14, 1935, p. 3.

81 Reinarz, Karl (secretary of the DJC) to Deutsches Ausland-Institut (hereafter cited as DAI), Valdivia, November 6, 1935 Google Scholar, BA Koblenz, R 57, 181/40. Reinarz explicitly mentions Walther Stehr (leader of the Nacista youth in Valparaiso), Paul Springmüller (provincial commissioner of Temuco), Ronald Stehr and Carl Dühring (both nacista leaders [Einheitsführer] in Santiago), as well as Walter Roeschmann (candidate of the MNS in the municipal elections in Temuco). Only Walter Stehr was a member of the NSDAP. Cf. Farías, Los nazis, p. 480.

82 Richard Zeissig (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, Leitung der Auslands-Organisation, NSDAP/AO) to DAI, Berlin, October 22, 1935, BA Koblenz, R 57, 181/40. For revocation of ban, cf. Trabajo, April 14, 1936, p. 1.

83 Cf. Müller, Auslandsorganisation, pp. 360–361; and Farias, Los nazis, pp. 47–48.

84 Potashnik, “Nacismo,” p. 247.

85 There are hints in Ibero-Amerika-Verlag to Landesgruppe Chile, Hamburg, June 10, 1936, Staatsarchiv Hamburg, Aufklärungsausschuss Hamburg-Bremen, no. 7, Correspondence with Auslandsorganisation, vol. 1, 1936.

86 Cf. Diputados, Sesiones Ordinarias 1937, August 24, 1937, pp. 2458–2461.

87 Cf. Wilfredo Mayorga, , “El camino de la violencia,” Ercilla (Santiago), May 11, 1966, pp. 18–19 Google Scholar. For González’s justification of the bloody confrontations, cf, . his La violencia nacista y los partidos politicos (Santiago: Eyzaguirre, 1936).Google Scholar

88 Cámara de Senado, Boletín de Sesiones Ordinarias 1936, August 25, 1936, pp. 1550–1556; Diputados, Sesiones Extraordinarios 1936–1937, November 16, 1936, pp. 271–273; and November 17, 1936, pp. 317–318, 323.

89 La Nación (Santiago), September 1, 1936, p. 3; and September 3, 1936, p. 3.

90 Diario Oficial (Santiago), February 12, 1937, law 6026, pp. 501–503. For a brief discussion of the law, see Loewenstein, Karl, “Legislation for the Defense of the State in Chile,” Columbia Law Review 44:3(1944), pp. 376–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

91 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, pp. 249–250. For Alessandri’s letter and Edwards’ account of the meeting, see Alexander, Robert J., Arturo Alessandri: A Biography (Rutgers University: Latin America Institute/Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1977) vol. 2, pp. 656–657.Google Scholar

92 Rippentrop to Auswärtiges Amt, London, February 7, 1937, PA AA, R 104946.

93 British Embassy to Foreign Office, Santiago, March 2, 1937, Public Record Office, London (here-after cited as PRO), A 1900/506/51, as quoted in Gaudig and Veit, “antecedentes,” p. 106. The authors indicate neither the name of the British diplomat nor the file number. An assessment of the advertisements is included.

94 Eberl, Otto (secretary of German Embassy) to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, September 13, 1938, PA AA, R 104947 Google Scholar. For Transocean, see Cavendish-Bentick, (British Ambassador) to Anthony Eden, Santiago, April 11, 1937 Google Scholar, PRO, Foreign Office (hereafter cited as FO) 371/20618.

95 Schoen, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, February 19, 1937, PA AA, R 104946.Google Scholar

96 Fricke, Bruno to Ministro del Interior, Buenos Aires, March 26, 1936, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, vol. 1, 1943.Google Scholar At the time Fricke, who had founded the first local organization of the NSDAP outside Germany in Paraguay in 1928, had joined the Schwarze Front (or Kampfgemeinschaft revolutionärer Nationalsozialisten), a dissident Nazi faction led by Otto Strasser.

97 Riveros, Carlos del Villar (Subprefecto de Investigaciones) to Prefectura de Investigaciones, Santiago, May 14, 1936, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, vol. 1, 1943.Google Scholar

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99 Cf. Diputados, Sesiones Extraordinarias 1936–1937, November 18, 1936, p. 389.

100 Deutsch, Derechas, p. 160. For Conservatives, cf. Schoen, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, November 20, 1936, PA AA, R 104947 Google Scholar. In his report, Schoen mentioned differences between Liberals and Conservatives. Whereas the Liberal party wanted the Nacistas to be treated just like the Communists, other parties voiced their reservations. Schoen obviously referred to the Conservative party.

101 See Trabajo, November 30, 1936, p. 3; December 11, 1936, pp. 1, 6, and 7; December 23, 1936, p. 3; January 2, 1937, pp. 1 and 6; January 12, 1937, p. 3; and January 15, 1937, pp. 1, 4, and 5.

102 Cf. ibid., April 24, 1937, pp. 1 and 2.

103 Valdivieso, Arriagada to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, June 22, 1937, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 5–316, 1937Google Scholar; Valdivieso, Arriagada to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, October 14, 1937, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 6–126, 1938Google Scholar; and Valdivieso, Arriagada to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, April 18, 1938; and September 15, 1938, AN, AMI, Oficios Confidenciales, 1–99, 1938Google Scholar.

104 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 364.

105 González in Hoy, January 28, 1937, p. 14.

106 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 244.

107 For the ban, see Gaudig and Veit, “antecedentes,” pp. 110–111; and for figures, cf. Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 189.

108 Schoen, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, February 16, 1937, PAAA, R 104946.Google Scholar

109 Cf. Deutsche Zeitung für Chile, April 2, 1935, p. 2; and April 4, 1935, p. 2.

110 See Diputados, Sesiones Ordinarias 1937, May 25, 1937, p. 98.

111 Ibid., May 24, 1937, pp. 56–59; June 8, 1937, p. 401; and July 14, 1937, pp. 1145–1147. The tax on copper exports was approved in a slightly modified form in early 1939. See Diputados, Sesiones Extraordinarias 1938–1939, March 8, 1939, pp. 752–795; and April 11, 1939, p. 994.

112 Eberl, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, August 30, 1937, PA AA, R 104946 Google Scholar. For González’s statement, see Trabajo, March 24, 1937, p. 3.

113 Cf. the statement of a leading member of the Socialist party quoted in Drake, Paul, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–1952 (Urbana/Chicago/London: University of Illinois Press, 1978), p. 148.Google Scholar

114 See Frente Popular (Santiago), August 24, 1937, p. 16; August 28, 1937, p. 16; and September 11, 1937, p. 16.

115 Eberl, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, August 30, 1937, PA AA, R 104946 Google Scholar. For the attacks of the left, see Diputados, , Sesiones Ordinarias 1937, August 24, 1937, pp. 2460–2461.Google Scholar

116 Trabajo, October 13, 1937, p. 1. For sympathies, see the statement of the Socialist party repro-duced in El Diario Ilustrado (Santiago), October 20, 1937, p. 2.

117 Ibid.

118 See Trabajo, January 30, 1938, p. 3. For US, cf. Drake, Socialism, p. 185; Barnard, Andrew, “The Chilean Communist Party, 1922–1947” (unpubl. Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1977), pp. 194–195 Google Scholar; and Moulian, Tomas and Dujisin, Isabel Torres, Discusiones entre honorables: las candidaturas presidenciales de la derecha entre 1938 y 1946 (Santiago: FLACSO, 1988), pp. 109–112.Google Scholar

119 Eberl, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, March 29, 1938, PA AA, R 104946.Google Scholar

120 Trabajo, March 25, 1938. A translation of this article, as well as those published in El Mercurio and El Imparcial, can be found in the report of the German Embassy from March 29, 1938. For confrontation in Brazil, cf. Harms-Baltzer, Käte, Die Nationalisierung der deutschen Einwanderer und ihrer Nachkommen in Brasilien als Problem der deutsch-brasilianischen Beziehungen, 1930–38 (Berlin: Colloquium, 1970).Google Scholar

121 Sanchez, Emilio Jeltsch (Subcomisario Jefe Provincial) to Prefectura de la III. Zona de Investigaciones, Concepción, and Intendencia de la Provincia de Valdivia, Valdivia, March 26, 1938, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 6–126, 1938.Google Scholar

122 Latorre, Manuel Aránguiz (Intendente de Valdivia) to Ministro del Interior, Valdivia, March 29, 1938, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 6–126, 1938.Google Scholar

123 Trabajo, April 6, 1938, pp. 4–5; and April 7, 1938, p. 3.

124 Cf. the interview with González in La Hora (Santiago), May 24, 1938, p. 5.Google Scholar

125 On the disintegration of the MNS and the emergence of the Partido Nacional Fascista, see Klein, Marcus, “The New Voices of Chilean Fascism and the Popular Front, 1938–1942,” Journal of Latin American Studies 33:2 (May 2001), pp. 349–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an explanation, see Trabajo, May 26, 1938, p. 3; May 28, 1938, p. 3; and May 31, 1938, pp. 3 and 6.

126 Schoen, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, June 22, 1938, PA AA, R 104947.Google Scholar

127 Trabajo, August 19, 1938, p. 1. For incident during the inauguration of the parliament’s new session, see ibid., May 22, 1938, p. 1; Diputados, Sesiones Ordinarias 1938, May 23, 1938, pp. 108–109; May 25, 1938, pp. 198–201; May 30, 1938, pp. 234–249; May 31, 1938, p. 339; June 2, 1938, p. 469; and Sir Bentinck, C. (British Ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, Santiago, May 23, 1938, PRO, FO 371/21437.Google Scholar

128 Valdivieso, Arriagada to Ministro del Interior, Santiago, September 17, 1938, AN, AMI, Oficios Confidenciales, 1–99, 1938Google Scholar. Arriagada Valdivieso was the man in charge in the Caja del Seguro Obrero, the scene of the executions. The names of the Nacistas are listed in González, , Jorge González interpreta oficialmente ante el país el pensamiento de la V.P.S. (Santiago: Victoria, n.d.), pp. 12–13 Google Scholar. For characterization of coup attempt, see Hoy, September 10, 1938, p. 10.

129 Cf. Diputados, Sesiones Ordinarias 1938, September 6, 1938, pp. 2916–2928.

130 The German Embassy had initially feared that such accusations could be raised because a number of young German-Chilean men, some of them from the “best families of Valdivia and Osorno,” were amongst the victims. See von Pochhammer, Wilhelm (counselor of German Embassy) to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, September 7, 1938 Google Scholar; and September 13, 1938, PA AA, R 104947. See Jean-Pierre Blancpain, Allemands, p. 867, n. 265.

131 Klein, “New Voices,” p. 352, italics in the original.

132 Trabajo, December 24, 1938, p. 3.

133 Pochhammer, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, September 13, 1938, PA AA, R 104947.Google Scholar

134 Bentinck to Halifax, Santiago, January 12, 1939, PRO, FO 371/22736.

135 See Socialista, Vanguardia Popular, Breve explicación de su doctrina (Santiago: n.pbl., [1939]).Google Scholar

136 Trabajo, January 15, 1939, p. 2.

137 Schoen, to Auswärtiges Amt, Santiago, January 19, 1939, PA AA, R 27198.Google Scholar

138 Zorrilla, Enrique, La profecía política de Vicente Huidobro (Parral: Nuestramérica, 1996), p. 115.Google Scholar

139 El Diario Ilustrado, April 6, 1939, p. 7. The manifesto was also published in Hoy, April 13, 1939, p. 9. For earlier statement of support, see La Hora, October 17, 1938, p. 5.

140 Potashnik, “Nacismo,” p. 329; and Deutsch, Derechas, p. 161.

141 Alliende González and Alliende Edwards, Jefe, p. 87.

142 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 244.

143 Cf. Navarrete Concha (Gobernador de Traiguen) to Ministro del Interior, Traiguen, September 6, 1938, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 351–396, 1938; and Ramirez, Marcial Drago (Intendente de Chiloé) to Ministro del Interior, Ancud, September 7, 1938, AN, AMI, Providencias Confidenciales, 126–250, 1938.Google Scholar

144 Müller, Auslandsorganisation, p. 251.

145 Ibid., p. 239. For a useful overview of the Third Reich’s relations with the Brazilian fascists, see Gertz, René E., “Influencia política alemā no Brasil na década de 1930,” Estudios Interdisciplinarios de America Latina y el Caribe, 7:1 (January-June 1996), pp. 85–105.Google Scholar