Markina Basque

This Illustration of the IPA describes the sound system of the local dialect of Basque (euskara, euskera, IS0-639-3 eus) spoken in the town of Markina-Xemein, in the province of Bizkaia (Biscay), within the Basque Autonomous Community of Spain (see maps in Figures 1 and 2. Speakers of this local variety of Basque refer to it as markiñarra or Markiñeko euskerie.

In the examples that we provide in this list, the following vowel is /a/, unless there are no examples with the relevant sequence.Examples are in parentheses if the consonant is only exceptionally found in that position.For the diacritic used to indicate accent and for their presence in only some phonological representations, see 'Word prosody' section below.In the phonemic representations above, only lexical accents are represented.In the phonetic representations, on the other hand, postlexical or phrase-level accents are also indicated.Note that all words in isolation carry an accent on the surface (since they constitute phrases by themselves).The contrast between lexical and postlexical accents can only be appreciated in longer utterances.Note that /)/, and /R/ are never found word-initially and that the palatals /6/, /¥/ and /j/ as well as the trill /r/ only occur word-initially in borrowings.
The consonantal system of Markina Basque and the distribution of the consonants in this variety is similar to what we find in other Basque dialects; in particular, it is fairly representative of Western Basque.Compared to the neighboring variety of Lekeitio (Hualde et al. 1994), Markina Basque lacks the postalveolar voiced fricative /Z/.This Lekeitio consonant systematically corresponds in Markina to the voiceless velar fricative /x/ (as in Lekeitio /Zatek5a/ 'the food' vs. Markina /xat,kue/) in word-initial position, and usually to the voiceless postalveolar fricative /S/ in word-medial position, as in Lekeitio /mendiZa/ vs. Markina /mendiSe/ 'the mountain'.Markina Basque also lacks the voiced alveolar affricate /dz/ marginally found in Lekeitio in some words of onomatopoetic origin.
In contrast to the Navarrese Basque variety of Goizueta described in the Illustration of the IPA in Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), Markina Basque, like all other Basque varieties spoken in Bizkaia and Araba and also many Gipuzkoan varieties, has merged the contrast between the old apico-alveolar and predorso-alveolar fricatives (represented in the standard spelling as <s> and <z>, respectively), in favor of an apico-alveolar /s/ [s ∞], and also the parallel contrast in place of articulation in affricates, in this case in favor of lamino-dental (or, rather, lamino-dentialveolar) [)5 ].In addition, the voiceless palatal stop /c/ has merged with the voiceless postalveolar affricate /*/, in favor of the latter.Markina Basque thus has a smaller number of consonantal phonemes than the varieties of either Lekeitio or Goizueta.Again, its consonantal inventory is, on the other hand, typical for a western Basque dialect.
As mentioned, some consonants are either very rare or completely missing in word-initial position.In word-final position the inventory is even more reduced.We will give details as we discuss each class of consonants in the following subsections.

Plosives
Syllable-initially there are six contrastive plosives, voiceless /p t k/ and voiced /b d g/.Although we do not have articulatory data to back this up, the place of articulation of /t/ and /d/ appears to be the same as in Castilian Spanish; that is, 'laminal denti-alveolar and not purely dental' (Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté 2003: 257).
Voiceless stops are realized as unaspirated (short VOT) in all positions.See Figure 3, /parkatu/ [parkÜtu] 'to forgive', which contains all three voiceless stops in onset position (all spectrograms have been made in Praat - Boersma & Weenink 2021).For the tokens of /p t k/ in onset position that appear in the recording of 'The North Wind and the Sun' that we have made for this Illustration, we have obtained the following average VOT values: /p/ (n = 9) =14.7 ms (st.dev.7.5), /t/ (n = 16) = 18.6 ms (st.dev.5.2),1 /k/ (n = 14) = 31.6ms (st.dev. 8.4).These values all fall within the typical VOT range of unaspirated voiceless stops (for Spanish, see e.g.Castañeda 1986, Rosner et al. 2000).As is also typically the case, the velar has longer VOT than the labial and the dental voiceless plosives.These values are also almost identical to those reported for unaspirated voiceless stops by Mounole (2004), for the Eastern Basque dialect of Zuberoa (Soule).(Unlike the variety that we are describing here and most other Basque dialects, Zuberoan Basque has a three-way phonological contrast involving voiceless aspirated, voiceless unaspirated and voiced plosives.) Voiced plosives are generally produced with prevoicing phrase-initially (see Figure 4, /biSer/ [bÚfl Ser] 'tomorrow ', St. Bq. bihar).Exceptionally there may be no prevoicing, causing some ambiguity in the signal.Nasal leak during the occlusion is another strategy to maintain voicing in the case of utterance-initial voiced plosives (see Ohala's 2011 Aerodynamic Voicing Constraint, AVC).This variation in the realization of phonologically voiced utterance-initial plosives is similar to what has been described for both Spanish and French (Solé 2018).Determining how much inter-speaker variation there is in this respect in Markina or any other Basque variety requires further research.
As noted in Hualde et al. (2010: 115-116), occasional phonetic ambiguity between phonologically voiced and voiceless plosives in utterance-initial position may lead to rephonologization of word-initial consonants, thus explaining dialectal variation in Basque in a number of lexical items, e.g.bake ∼ pake 'peace' < Lat.PACE, bizar ∼ pizar 'beard', etc. Less commonly, a word-initial voiced plosive has become nasal in words where the only source of nasality would be AVC-induced prenasalization, as in bakail(a)o ∼ makail(a)u 'cod'.Note that the Basque name of Biarritz, in the French Basque Country, is Miarritze.
Voiced plosives are typically realized with incomplete occlusion, usually as approximants, between vowels and after a nonhomorganic consonant; that is, in the same contexts as in Castilian Spanish (see Martínez-Celdrán et al. 2003): /ebai/ [eβ4 Üi 9 ] 'to cut', /adara/ [aD4 Üra] 'the horn', /agertu/ [aƒ4 ,rtu] 'to appear'.The degree of constriction of intervocalic /b d g/ is very variable and may be conditioned in part by contextual factors (for Spanish, see e.g.Carrasco, Hualde & Simonet 2012 and references therein); in particular, in the speech sample recorded for this Illustration, the velar tends to be very constricted in accented syllables.An example of a typical realization of intervocalic /d/ is given in Figure 5, /adÜra/ 'the horn'.
An original intervocalic /g/ has been lost in some words, as in /ebai/ 'to cut' from older ebagi, still found in other local varieties (Rollo 1925 gives ebai as preferred form in Markina and ebagi as an alternative), and can be variably deleted in some other words, in a lexicallyconditioned manner, e.g.eguzkixe [eƒ4 5skiSe] ∼ [,u9 skiSe] 'the sun' (St.Bq. eguzkia), but not as frequently as in the neighboring dialect of Leketio (Hualde et al. 1994: 34-35).
Except for recent borrowings, there are no plosives in word-internal coda position.Word-finally, only /t/ and /k/ are found.The only example of final /p/ is the interjection [,u9 p], used as a greeting.The lexical incidence of final /t/ and /k/ is also rather low, as there are no nouns or adjectives ending in a plosive in their uninflected form.In contrast, the textual frequency of word-final /t/ and /k/, on the other hand, is very high in all Basque varieties, since a number of inflectional suffixes end in one of these two consonants (including ergative /-k/, plural absolutive /-ak/, ablative /-tik/, benefactive /-)at/ and first person singular /-t/).Word-final plosives are often elided before another consonant.(For a corpus study of wordfinal plosive reduction in the Basque dialect of Azpeitia, see Hualde et al. 2019Hualde et al. , 2021.) .)In careful style, however, both consonants may be pronounced, sometimes resulting in excrescent vowels between the two, as in our recording of /lÜgunek dÜtos/ [lÜƒ4 uneg e D4 Ütos] 'the friends are coming'. 2ord-initial voiced plosives undergo optional devoicing after a voiceless consonant within certain domains, even if the trigger is deleted on the surface.The phenomenon affects primarily conjugated verbal forms and grammatical particles, e.g.guk be [g5pe] 'we-ERGATIVE too', horregaitik ba [or,ƒ4 ai 9 *ipa] 'for that reason', ez dakit [estÜkit] 'I don't know', ez dator [estÜtor] 's/he is not coming' (orthographic <z> is a voiceless fricative).
Labiodental /f/ is restricted to onset position.The only word containing this consonant word-finally is /buf/ 'buff, neck gaiter', which is a recently coined brand name that, nevertheless, has been adopted as a common noun and is used by younger speakers, e.g./lau buf/ 'four buffs', /bufe/ 'the buff'.There are no other examples of final /f/.Even in onset position, /f/ is a phoneme of relatively recent introduction in Markina Basque, inverting an older tendency to replace /f/ with /p/ in borrowings (Baraiazarra 1985).
The alveolar fricative /s/ is usually realized as apico-alveolar [s ∞]; that is, it is produced with the tongue tip raised towards the alveolar region, unlike in the lamino-alveolar articulation of /s/ that is more common in languages like English and French.By coarticulation with a back vowel, in words like /basu/ [bas ∞5] 'the forest', /sure/ [s ∞5re] 'the nose', the apex may be somewhat more retracted, producing an acoustic effect that perceptually may sound like [S].
As in other Western Basque varieties, apico-alveolar /s/ has resulted from the historical merger between apico-alveolar and lamino-alveolar fricatives, which are still contrasting phonemes in areas further to the east (see e.g.Hualde et al. 2010).For a recent study of the spectral characteristics of alveolar fricatives in merging and non-merging Basque varieties, see Beristain (published online 20 April 2021).The postalveolar fricative /S/ is mostly found in intervocalic position, especially after /i/, as a result of either historical palatalization of /s/ in this context, haizea > /aiSie/ [ai 9 SÚfl e] 'the wind', isilik > /iSilik/ 'silent, quiet' (see above for /*/) or epenthesis, mendia > /mendiSe/ 'the mountain' (see 'Vowel interaction rules' section below and the examples therein).Nevertheless, there are a few words where it occurs after other vowels, as in axe /aSe/ 'that one', with the intensive suffix /-Se/.Word-initially it is only found in proper names, such as the toponym Xemein /Semein/.It does not occur word-finally.Representative spectral slices for the fricatives /s/ and /S/ are shown in Figure 6.
There is a synchronically striking alternation between /x-/ and /*-/ in verbal forms, as in etorri jaku /etori xaku/ 'it has come to us' vs. ez jaku etorri /e*aku etori/ ∼ /esxaku etori/ 'it has not come to us'.The historical explanation must be that the negative form has preserved the stage before velarization of the prepalatal, /es Saku/ [e*aku], where a synchronic rule replacing /s-S/ with /*/ applied.5After velarization of [S], but not of [*], this has resulted in an unusual alternation between consonants.

Laterals
The apico-alveolar lateral /l/ is produced without velarization in any context.In onset position, it is found in both word-initial and word-medial onsets, either as a simple onset or in a cluster with a non-dental plosive or /f/: /lagune/ 'the friend', /alabie/ 'the daughter', /klaRu/ 'clear', /plÜntak ein/ 'to clown around', /flana/ 'the flan'.It may also occur in both word internal and word-final coda position /talde/ [tal5 De] 'group' (with lenition of /d/ in the recorded example), /asal/ 'skin'.

The voiced palatal central consonant
In the above list of examples, we have included a phoneme /j/ in the inventory, that may be illustrated with proper names like Jare and Julen in word-initial position, and, in intervocalic word-medial position, with a word like [aratoje] 'the rat', inflected form of /aratoi/ [aratoi 9 ].The phonological status of this consonant is unclear.In a possible analysis, it is a consonantal realization of the vowel phoneme /i/ when it appears in onset position (either word-initially before a vowel or intervocalically).It ranges in its degree of constriction from approximant or fricative to stop.See Figures 7, Julen /julen/ and 8, arratoie /aratoje/ 'the rat'.Leaving aside proper names of recent introduction like Julen, which can be considered borrowings from Standard Basque, this consonant is not found in word-initial position in Markina Basque, since historically word-initial /j/ underwent the series of sound changes mentioned above (ultimately resulting in /x/).

Rhotics
There are two rhotic phonemes, alveolar tap /R/ as in /uRe/ 'the water' and alveolar trill /r/, as in /urie/ 'the gold'.The trill is usually produced with two or three contacts (see Gaminde et al. 2017).The contrast between phonemic tap and trill can be observed by comparing, on the one hand, Figures 5, /adara/ 'the horn' and 8, /aratoje/ 'the rat', both of which contain trills with three brief occlusions, and, on the other, Figure 9, /afaRiSe/ 'the supper', with a phonemic tap realized with a single occlusion.Note that although the instance of /R/ in Figure 9 has greater duration than a typical tap, thus resembling a short [d], in Basque the phoneme /d/ would normally be realized instead as an approximant [D4 ] in intervocalic position.Nevertheless, as mentioned above (under Plosives), in Basque, and, in particular, in the varieties around Markina, we find a tendency for intervocalic /d/ and /R/ to be lexically redistributed.
As in Spanish, the contrast between the two rhotic consonants is only found in wordinternal intervocalic position.Nevertheless, the distribution of the rhotics also has important differences with respect to Spanish.To begin with, neither rhotic appears word-initially, except for recent borrowings from Spanish with a word-initial trill, like /rîsie/ 'the pink one' < Sp. rosa, and /rÜRue/ 'the strange one' < Sp. raro.Older borrowings with initial trills in Spanish show vowel epenthesis, Sp. rueda > /erubeRie/ 'the wheel'.
In a number of lexical items and suffixes, an intervocalic /R/ is optional or has been lost.Similar to the deletion of intervocalic /d/ and /g/, this is a lexically conditioned phenomenon.The vowel plot in Figure 10 has been obtained by taking first and second formant measurements at the middle point of 20 tokens of each vowel in words recorded for this Illustration, including the five words mentioned at the beginning of this section.The plot was made with the graphics package ggplot2 (Wickham 2016) running in R (R Core Team 2020) and RStudio (RStudio Team 2019).

Vowel sequences
Sequences of two vocoids where the second one is high are pronounced as falling diphthongs.
The following falling diphthongs are found: [ai] /bai/ 'yes', /aiʧe/ 'father' [au] /ɡaur/ 'today' [ei] /beiʃe/ 'the cow', /lârei/ 'too much' [eu] /ɡeu/ 'we' [oi] /oiʧu/ 'to get used to', /leoi/ 'lion' [ui] /duin/ 'decent' The contrast between diphthong and hiatus is not necessarily reflected in the duration of the sequence, but, rather, in that of its two components.For instance, in Figure 11 /gaur/'today', the sequence /au/ has a duration of 362 ms, and in Figure 12 /s5ek/ 'you PL', /ue/ has a duration of 368 ms.However, as can be observed in the figures, the relative proportion of both elements is rather different in the two sequences.The difference in duration between the two vocalic elements is much smaller in the hiatus sequence /ue/ than in the diphthong /au/ [au9 ].The difference in syllabification between these types of sequences is phonologically relevant for the accent-assignment rules.

Vowel interaction rules: Morphophonogical processes affecting vowel sequences
Vowel sequences arising in morpheme concatenation undergo a number of changes.These are most conspicuous in sequences arising from the affixation of the definite article, historically always /a/, to nouns and adjectives.Local Basque varieties vary substantially in the treatment of these sequences (see Hualde & Gaminde 1998).
In the examples in (1), illustrating the treatment of inflectional vowel sequences in Markina Basque, we show the uninflected form, the absolutive singular form and the absolute plural form for nouns and adjectives ending in each of the five vowels, as well as ending in consonants after non-high and high vowels.The examples are in broad phonetic transcription.
(   A note on accentuation: All noun and adjective stems in the examples are lexically unaccented.Starting with the absolutive singular, the examples show the application of a default rule that assigns an accent to the penultimate syllable of the phrase; except that, as can be seen in ( 1) above, the accent surfaces on the last syllable if the last vowel is deleted (by an optional rule).The fact that this is a post-lexical or phrase-level accent assigned to the penultimate syllable of the phrase can be observed by comparing, for instance [laƒ4 5ne] 'the friend' and [laƒ4 uneD4 Ütor] 'the friend is coming' (in Figure 19 below).In the absolutive plural, the plural suffix introduces a morphological or lexical accent, which normally surfaces on the antepenultimate syllable of the word.The accent of the plural does not shift when the word is phrase-medial.Finally, uninflected forms never occur in isolation (except for vocatives).Our transcription shows how they were pronounced in the sound files that were recorded and show variability between penultimate and final accent with consonant-final uninflected forms.
As shown in the examples in (1), a number of sound changes have combined to produce complex alternations between uninflected and inflected forms.Leaving stems in /-a/ aside, for the moment, the treatment of the sequence is the same in the singular and the plural.The rules that apply to the sequences in (1) are the following: (2) Rules in vowel sequences a. Stem-final mid vowels raise to high before the article.b.If the stem ends in /i/, epenthetic /S/ is inserted.c.The vowel of the suffix is /e/ after a high vowel, with or without intervening consonants, and /a/ elsewhere.d. /e/ is optionally deleted in hiatus after another vowel.
With stems ending in /a/, we find different phenomena in the singular and in the plural.Both comparison with other dialects and the historical records show that, in the singular, there was an initial dissimilation of the sequence /aa/.Step-by-step, we have: /neska-a/ > /neskea/ > /neskia/ > /neskie/ > /neski/ 'the girl' (or, perhaps, through epenthesis, /neskaa/ > * /neskaia/ > /neskea/ . ..).In the plural, on the other hand, the sequence of two identical vowels was contracted: /neska-fl ak/ > /n,skak/.Except for the first, dissimilatory change /a- a/ > /ea/ in singular inflected forms, which is found already in our first texts for Western Basque in the 16th century and even earlier sources, the rest of the sound changes in these evolutions are very recent.Early 19th century sources for Markina Basque show singular forms like /neskia/ vs. plural forms like /neskaak/.The difference in accentuation between plural forms like /lÜgunek/ 'the friends' and /alÜbak/ 'the daughters' shows that the shift of lexical accents to the antepenultimate syllable is older than the contraction of the sequence /aa/ (e.g./alÜbaak/, with antepenultimate accent, > /alÜbak/, Hualde 2000).
The deletion of postvocalic /e/, which, as shown in (1), is an optional process in Markina, takes place obligatorily in neighboring Ondarroa.

Word prosody
The accentual system of Markina Basque was described in detail in Hualde (2000), see also Gandiaga Ibarzabal (2014).Like in many other Bizkaian varieties, there is an underlying contrast between accented and unaccented words or morphemes (Hualde 1988(Hualde , 1991)).Accented words bear an accent on a given syllable (mostly the antepenultimate in Markina) in all contexts.Unaccented words, on the other hand, are only subject to rules of phrasal accentuation.In isolation, all words carry an accent, but this accent will be preserved phrase-medially only if it is lexical.As already mentioned (regarding the examples in (1) above), a default rule assigns prominence to the penultimate syllable of the phrase. 7n lexically accented words, the accent may be an underlying property of either the stem or an inflectionl suffix.If the stem is lexically accented, all forms of its inflectional paradigm will be accented.Lexically accented stems include many borrowings, compounds and derived words.For instance, using examples from the list at the start of the 'Consonants' section, the word /¥ab,Rue/ [¥aβ,Rue] 'the keychain' (morphophonemically, // fl ¥abeRu-a//) is a lexically accented borrowing (from Sp. llavero), and /xat,kue/ 'the food' is a derived word (from /xan/ 'to eat').Their accentual pattern can be compared to that of unaccented /basue/ 'the forest' (morphophonemically //baso-a//) and /sague/ 'the mouse', which, as shown in Table 2, in citation form surface as [bas5e], [saƒ4 5e] with phrase-penultimate accent.
Underlyingly accented suffixes include all plural suffixes, the ablative //-fl tik// and the comitative //-fl as//.Words containing a lexically unaccented stem will have a lexical accent if they carry an accented inflectional suffix.Lexical accents usually surface on the antepenultimate syllable of the word, even if they are introduced by a suffix, e.g.//mendi-fl ak// [m,ndiSek].For more details, see Hualde (2000), and for the neighboring variety of Leketio, where the distribution betwen lexically accented and unaccented morphemes is essentially the same as in Markina, but the rules determining the position of accents are different, Hualde et al. (1994), G. Elordieta (1997).
In broad focus declarative sentences where all words are lexically unaccented, there is an initial tonal rise (LH-, sometimes H-) loosely associated with the second syllable of the phrase and a final fall (H * L) (postlexical accent) associated with the syllable with default nuclear accent, with a high plateau created by interpolation between both events (see G. Elordieta 1998, Elordieta & Hualde 2003b, 2014).This is what we see in Figure 13, gure abadiana da /guRe abadianÜ da/ 'it is the one of our priest' and Figure 14, lagunan alabie etorri da /lagunan alabÚfl e etori da/ 'the friend's daughter has come'.Whereas in the rest of the paper phonemic representations of words include accent marks only in lexically accented words, in order to indicate the accented vs. unaccented lexical contrast, in this section we indicate both lexical and postlexical accents with a circumflex diacritic in our phonemic representations of sentences for greater clarity.
In Markina, in sentences with analytical verbs (participle + auxiliary), the rule of default nuclear accent generally places the accent on the penultimate syllable of the constituent preceding the verb, as we can observe in Figure 14.On the other hand, if the verb is synthetic, as in the sentence in Figure 13, the verb forms a single prosodic unit with the preceding constituent and the accent goes on the penultimate syllable of that unit.8Lexically accented words display an accent in all positions.In the sentence in Figure 15, lagúnen alabie etorri da /lag5nen alabÚfl e etori da/ 'the friends PL' daughter has come', which forms a minimal with the example in Figure 14, the genitive plural word /lag5nen/ 'of the friends' is lexically accented, like all plurals, and bears an accent that causes downstepping of the nuclear, postlexical, accent on /alabÚfl e/ 'the daughter'.
A second minimal pair illustrating the contrast between lexically unaccented and accented words is given in Figure 16 and 17.In Figure 16, Fidelen alabie ikusi dot /fidelen alabÚfl e ikusi dot/ 'I saw Fidel's daughter', the only accentual event is the postlexical nuclear accent on the penultimate syllable of the immediately preverbal word /alabÚfl e/ 'the daughter'.In contrast, in Figure 17, Fidélan alabie ikusi dot /fid,lan alabÚfl e ikusi dot/ 'I saw Fidela's daughter', the preverbal phrase /fid,lan alabÚfl e/ contains two accents,with downstep of the second one, since the name /fid,la/ is lexically accented.
As shown in the figures, the most salient cue of accent is a tonal peak on the accented syllable and a post-accentual fall in pitch.Other features such as duration do not seem to be a consistent correlate of accent in the Basque dialects of this area, although they are sometimes present (see Hualde, Smiljanic@ & Cole 2000, where data from a speaker from Markina and a speaker from Bermeo are analyzed, G. Elordieta & Hualde 2001, 2003a, based on data from Lekeitio speakers, and Rodríguez-Ordóñez 2019 for Gernika; see also Hualde et al. 2002).
A question that arises in the context of this Illustration of the IPA is how to represent accent.As in other work in Northern Bizkaian Basque prosody (G.Elordieta 1998, G. Elordieta & Hualde 2014, etc.), in the figures we are using an autosegmental representation H * L, following the conventions of the Autosegemental-Metrical framework (Pierrehumbert 1980, Ladd 2008).As a diacritic in phonological transcriptions, on the other hand, we are   using the IPA circumflex diacritic.We have chosen this diacritic because, as shown in the figures, the accentual contour often shows both a rise on the accented syllable and a following fall to a low tone.Sometimes, however, the pitch is completely flat from a phase-initial rise and there is no visible additional rise on the accented syllable.
In the data that we have recorded for this illustration, a remarkable feature is the delay of the peak from the first syllable of phrase-initial words in some examples.An example is given in Figure 18, lágunek etorri di /lÜgunek etori di/ 'the friends have come'.Note the displacement of the peak of the lexical accent on the first syllable of /lÜgunek/ 'the friends' to the second syllable.Perceptually, however, accentual prominence is on the initial syllable.Similar phenomena of accent peak delay in phrase-initial words have been reported for other Basque dialects, as well as for other languages (For Lekeitio Basque, see Ito, G. Elordieta & Hualde 2003).Duration appears to be a relevant cue to accent in this context.In this respect, it is relevant to point out that there is substantial variation among local varieties in this area regarding accent assignment rules (see Hualde 1988Hualde , 1991Hualde , 2000)), which can be explained by occasional or frequent ambiguity in the anchoring of pitch accents with specific syllables.

Intonation: Statements and questions
In simple neutral statements, there is a low tone extending from the drop in pitch associated with the last accent, lexical or postlexical, to the end of the sentence.As was already mentioned, in sentences containing only unaccented words, a postlexical (default nuclear) accent is normally associated with the penultimate syllable of the preverbal constituent, This is the pattern in sentences where the verbal form contains a participle and an auxiliary, as in Figures 14, lagunan alabie etorri da /lagunan alabÚfl e etori da/ 'the friend's SG daughter has come', and Figure 16, Fidelen alabie ikusi dot /fidelen alabÚfl e ikusi (d)ot/ 'I saw Fidel's daughter'.Only a handful of verbs are conjugated synthetically, without an auxiliary.In sentences with a synthetic verb, the location of the nuclear accent is different, as shown in Figure 13, gure abadiana da 'it is the one of our priest', and Figure 19, lagune dator /lagune dÜtor/ 'the friend is coming'.In such sentences, the final fall starts on or right after the penultimate syllable of the prosodic domain that contains the verb and the preceding constituent.
Leaving aside the specific syllable where the final fall starts, the intonational pattern is the same in the declarative sentences in Figures 13-19.
Yes-no questions have the same syntax as statements, but intonationally differ from them. 9Interrogativity is signalled by an upstepped circumflex (rise-fall) contour on the final syllable of the sentence, as in Figure 20, lagune etorri da? /lag5ne etori ↑DÜ/ 'did the friend come?' and Figure 21, lagune dator?/lagune da↑tîr/ 'is the friend coming?'Note that in Figure 20 there are two accents and that the second one, which conveys interrogative force is upstepped.In Figure 21, there is only one accent, since the lexically unaccented noun /lagune/ and the lexically unaccented synthetic verb /dator/ constitute a single prosodic unit.Comparing the declarative sentence in Figure 19, /lagune dÜtor/ 'the friend is coming', and its interrogative counterpart in Figure 21, /lagune da↑tîr/ 'is the friend coming?', note the 9 As a reviewer points out, intonational differences that are attributed to a contrast between statements and yes-no questions may actually signal more complex pragmatic notions.Nevertheless, in a perception study (reported in Zhang, Bedialauneta & Hualde 2021) where participants were asked to distinguish questions from non-questions, native speakers of Markina Basque had a very high rate of correct identification, even though the stimuli included emphatic verum focus statements, which, like yes-no questions have a wide final circumflex contour (but with a difference in alignment).Participants who spoke a different Basque dialect or spoke Basque as a second language had a much lower percentage of correct responses.difference in the position of the tonal rise and fall (penultimate vs. final syllable) and the much wider movement in the interrrogative sentence.In addition, the final syllable is lengthened in interrogative sentences.
Transcription of 'The North Wind and the Sun' ('Ipar haizea eta Eguzkia') We include four versions of the same passage.First, we offer a transcription of the text in Basque orthography, but adapted to the dialect of Markina.This is the version that was used as a transcript for the reading task.Secondly, we offer this text in a phonemic IPA transcription.In third place, we include a phonetic transcription of the recording.Finally, we also provide a literal version in Standard Basque, in order to make it easier for interested readers to check the meaning of specific words and also for easier comparison with other Basque dialects, such as Goizueta Basque (Hualde et al. 2010).(Note that, as explained above, /t/, /d/ and /)/ are normally denti-alveolar.In our phonetic transcription of the recording we use the dental diacritic under these phonemes only in sequences such as /nd/ where a preceding nasal assimilates in place to the following consonant.) Orthographic transcription (in Basque orthography adapted to the dialect) Ipar haixie eta eguzkixe, indartsuena zein zan diskutitzen zebizela on) ezko bat pasau zan kapa lodi baten batute.Erabakiben indartsuena lehenengo on) ezkuai kapie kentzotzena izengo zala.Ordun, ipar haixiek beran indar (indder) gustixaz hasi zan joten, ban) a zemat eta gogorrau jo, ibiltarixek orduen eta estuau eustotzen beran kapiai.Azkenien, ipar haixiek, etsitxe, ahalegin) ek eitxiai itxitzen.Gero, eguzkixe gogor berotzen hasi zan, eta on) ezkuek laster kenduban beran kapioi.Eta holan, ipar haixiek onartu ein biher izeban eguzkixe zala bixen artien indartsuena.

Figure 1 (
Figure 1 (Colour online) Location of the Basque Country and the province of Bizkaia within it.

FrequencyFigure 6
Figure 6Spectral slices of /s/ in /esan/ 'to say' (left panel) and /S/ in /biSer/ 'tomorrow' (right panel).The spectra were obtained in Praat with standard settings near the point of maximum intensity in the fricative.

F0Figure 18
Figure18lágunek etorri di /lÜgunek etori di/ 'the friends have come'.The H * L accent is lexical and is phonologically associated with the initial syllable.Note the displacement of the accentual peak.

F0Figure 19
Figure19lagune dator /lagune dÜtor/ 'the friend is coming'.The H * L accent is postlexical and is phonologically associated with the penultimate syllable of the phrase.