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²³ Some of the literature on European integration has distinguished forms of spatial and temporal othering. See, for example, Diez, Thomas, ‘Constructing the self and changing others: Reconsidering normative power Europe’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 33:3 (2005), pp. 319–335 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a critique of the distinction between space and time in the construction of Europe’s others, see Prozorov, Sergei, ‘The other as past and present: Beyond the logic of “temporal othering” in IR theory’, Review of International Studies, 37:3 (2011), pp. 1273–1293 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Barry Hindess has developed one of the most cogent articulations of the relation between time and others: Hindess, Barry, ‘The past is another culture’, International Political Sociology, 1:4 (2007), pp. 325–338 Google Scholar.

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²⁷ Ibid., p. 216.

²⁸ This is not to say that these architectures of difference exist in separate worlds, as Bigo’s analysis of separate, but competing professional universes would indicate. On the distinction between an analysis focused on professionals and analyses of expertise, see Eyal, Gil and Pok, Grace, ‘What is security expertise?’, in Trine Villumsen Berling and Christian Bueger (eds), Security Expertise: Practice, Power, Responsibility (London: Routledge, 2015), pp. 37–59 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁵ Government Communications Head Quarters (GCHQ), ‘GCHQ Analytic Cloud Challenges’ (2012), available at: {https://search.edwardsnowden.com/docs/GCHQAnalyticCloudChallenges2015-09-25nsadocs} accessed 20 February 2016.

³⁶ Communications Security Establishment Canada, ‘CSEC SIGINT Cyber Discovery: Summary of the Current Effort’, Snowden Archive (2010), available at: {https://search.edwardsnowden.com/docs/CSECSIGINTCyberDiscoverySummaryofthecurrenteffort2015-01-17nsadocs} accessed 30 June 2016.

³⁷ GCHQ, ‘GCHQ Analytic Cloud Challenges’.

³⁸ GCHQ, ‘HIMR Data Mining Research Problem Book’, Snowden Archive (2011), available at: {https://edwardsnowden.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Problem-Book-Redacted.pdf} accessed 27 April 2016.

³⁹ Ibid., p. 30.

⁴⁰ NSA, ‘XKeyScore’, Snowden Archive (2008), available at: {https://search.edwardsnowden.com/docs/XKeyScore2013-07-31nsadocs} accessed 30 June 2016. Compar anomaly detectiion with techniques of sensing that which is ‘out of place’. Aradau and van Munster, Politics of Catastrophe, ch. 6.

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⁵⁵ Ernst, Waltraud, ‘The normal and the abnormal: Reflections on norms and normativity’, in Waltraud Ernst (ed.), Histories of the Normal and the Abnormal: Social and Cultural Histories of Norms and Normativity (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006), p. 10 Google Scholar.

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⁵⁷ Desrosières, Alain, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, trans. Camille Naish (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 79 Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Ibid.

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⁶⁰ Canguilhem, Georges, The Normal and the Pathological (New York: Zone Books, 1991)Google Scholar.

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⁶² Ibid., p. 136.

⁶³ Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012 [orig. pub. 1962])Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Rose, ‘The neurochemical self and its anomalies’.

⁶⁵ For analyses of these anticipatory techniques and limitations of statistical knowledge, see Amoore, The Politics of Possibility; Aradau and van Munster, Politics of Catastrophe; de Goede, Speculative Security.

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⁶⁹ To develop a thick description of these techniques, we have used a combination of the Snowden documents, recently declassified materials, and operational cases made by the UK government in support of the Investigatory Power Bill, independent evaluation reports, and have juxtaposed their claims to the computing literature. We have particularly relied on computer science survey papers on anomaly or outlier detection, which are key forms of knowledge production in the discipline and are most often cited.

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⁷³ Chandola, , Banerjee, , and Kumar, , ‘Anomaly detection’, p. 27 Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Ibid., p. 6.

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⁷⁶ Claudia Aradau and Tobias Blanke, ‘Politics of prediction: Security and the time/space of governmentality in the age of Big Data’, European Journal of Social Theory, 20:3 (2017), pp. 373–91.

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⁷⁹ McCue, Colleen, Data Mining and Predictive Analysis: Intelligence Gathering and Crime Analysis (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006), p. 102 Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Ibid., p. 104.

⁸¹ Ibid., p. 106.

⁸² Ibid., p. 110.

⁸³ Chandola, , Banerjee, , and Kumar, , ‘Anomaly detection’, p. 43 Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ Donald A. Borrmann et al., ‘The History of Traffic Analysis: World War I – Vietnam’, National Security Agency (2013), p. 3, available at: {http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/misc/traffic_analysis.pdf} accessed 2 September 2016.

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⁸⁷ GCHQ, ‘HIMR Data Mining Research Problem Book’, p. 26.

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⁹⁰ Ibid., p. 229.

⁹¹ Arun Kejariwal, ‘Introducing Practical and Robust Anomaly Detection in a Time Series’ (2015), available at: {https://blog.twitter.com/2015/introducing-practical-and-robust-anomaly-detection-in-a-time-series} accessed 30 June 2016.

⁹² Ibid, available at: {https://g.twimg.com/blog/blog/image/figure_raw_residual_global_local.png} accessed 13 October 2017.

⁹³ Manuel Egele, Gianluca Stringhini, Christopher Kruegel, and Giovanni Vigna, ‘COMPA: Detecting Compromised Accounts on Social Networks’ (2013), available at: {http://www.seclab.tuwien.ac.at/papers/compa-ndss13.pdf} accessed 2 October 2016.

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⁹⁸ GCHQ, ‘HIMR Data Mining Research Problem Book’, p. 12. A 2011 NSA memo revealed by Snowden shows that NSA contact chaining using metadata can be extended from any selector, independent of location and nationality. Previous guidance limited contact chaining to foreign selectors. NSA, ‘New Contact-Chaining Procedures to Allow Better, Faster Analysis’ (2011), available at: {https://search.edwardsnowden.com/docs/NewContact-ChainingProcedurestoAllowBetterFasterAnalysis2013-09-28nsadocs} accessed 8 November 2016.

⁹⁹ Goldstein, and Uchida, , ‘A comparative evaluation of unsupervised anomaly detection’, p. 2 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ NSA, ‘SKYNET’.

¹⁰¹ Christian Grothoff and J. M. Porup, ‘The NSA’s SKYNET Program may be Killing Thousands of Innocent People’, Ars Technica (2016), available at: {http://arstechnica.co.uk/security/2016/02/the-nsas-skynet-program-may-be-killing-thousands-of-innocent-people/} accessed 21 June 2016.

¹⁰² NSA, ‘SKYNET’: Courier Detection via Machine Learning’.

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¹⁰⁴ Chamayou, , A Theory of the Drone, p. 48 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Grothoff and Porup, ‘The NSA’s SKYNET Program’.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid.

¹⁰⁷ GCHQ, ‘HIMR Data Mining Research Problem Book’, p. 46 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Aggarwal, , Outlier Analysis, p. 353 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., p. 6.

¹¹⁰ As Anthony Amicelle has brilliantly shown in the case of financial practices for counterterrorism, different understandings of normality and abnormality are not mutually exclusive, but underpin different types of knowledge in financial policing. Anthony Amicelle, ‘Bringing the abnormal back in: On surveillance and financial intelligence’ (forthcoming), author manuscript.

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