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⁷ See, for instance, Ikonomou, Haakon A., Andry, Aurélie and Byberg, Rebekka, ‘Introduction. Towards a New Understanding of Enlargement’, in idem., eds., European Enlargement across Rounds and Beyond Borders (New York: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar; Kornetis, Kostis, ‘Introduction: The End of a Parable? Unsettling the Transitology Model in the Age of Crisis’, Historein, 15, 1 (2015), 5–12 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thum, Gregor, ‘“Europa” im Ostblock. Weiße Flecken in der Geschichte der europäischen Integration’, Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History 1 (2004), 379–95Google Scholar; González, Ángeles Huerta, La Europa periférica. Rusia y España ante el fenómeno de la modernidad (University of Santiago de Compostela Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Rutar, Sabine, ‘Introduction’ in idem, ed., Beyond the Balkans: Towards an Inclusive History of South-Eastern Europe (Zurich: Litverlag, 2007), 9–14 Google Scholar.

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¹⁰ ‘Eastern Europe’ as a regional descriptor dates back to the Enlightenment. See Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe. The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar. ‘Southern Europe’, by contrast, did not exist before the Second World War – interwar Italy's imperial pretensions faced East, making it quite distinct from the Iberian world: Franzinetti, Guido, ‘Southern Europe and International Politics in the Post-War Period’ in Baumeister, Martin and Sala, Roberto, eds., Southern Europe? Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece from the 1950s to the Present Day (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2015), 221 Google Scholar. For a comparative exploration, see Edward Malefakis, ‘Southern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries: An Historical Overview’, Instituto Juan March de Estudios e Investigaciones, Estudio/Working Paper 1992/35, January 1992. For a useful summary, see Effie Pedaliu, The Making of Southern Europe: An Historical Overview (LSE Report) available online: http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/reports/pdf/SR017/Pedaliu.pdf (last visited 17 Aug. 2017).

¹¹ Indeed, in the interwar period they had been more often seen as peripheries that suffered from similar issues of underdevelopment: Aldcroft, Derek H., Europe's Third World. The European Periphery in the Interwar Years (New York: Routledge, 2006)Google Scholar.

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²⁹ For the production of the idea of Southern Europe in this period, see both Guido Franzinetti, ‘Southern Europe’ and Piermattei, Massimo, ‘Ptolemaics and Copernicans. Southern Europe and the European Integration Process’, in Baumeister, Martin and Sala, Roberto, eds., Southern Europe? Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece from the 1950s to the Present Day (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2015)Google Scholar. For the construction of ‘Southern Europe’ in expert discourses see ‘Die Verhandlung des Westens. Wissenseliten und die Heterogenität Westeuropas nach 1945’, special issue Comparativ, 25 (2015) http://research.uni-leipzig.de/comparativ/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=150&Itemid=29 (last visited 17 Aug. 2017); on units of regional comparison, see Schmitter, Philippe C. and Karl, Terry Lynn, ‘Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should they Go?’, Slavic Review, 53,1 (1994), 173–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁵ Loth, Building Europe, 433.

³⁶ Hermet, Guy, ‘La democratisation à l'amiable: de l'Espagne à la Pologne’, Commentaire, 50 (1990), 279–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Machcewicz, Pawel, ‘Hiszpanska droga do demokracji’, Tygodnik Solidarność 3 (1989), 4 Google Scholar; Adam Michnik, ‘La derrota de Stalin. La vía española como la esperanza para Polonia’, El País, 23 Mar. 1989; Kieniewicz, Jan, ‘Hiszpania-przykład czy wyzwanie’, Przeglad Powszechny, 1 (1990), 92–104 Google Scholar; Kieniewicz, Jan, ‘Doświadczenia hiszpańskie w rzeczywistości polskiej’, Polska w Europie, 21 (1996), 102–14Google Scholar; Filar, Dariusz, ‘Polonia es diferente, czyli Socjoekonomiczna paralela Polski z Hiszpania u schyłku wieku totalizmów’, Przegląd Powszechny 1 (1990), 105–16Google Scholar; Dobek-Ostrowska, Bogusława, Hiszpania i Polska: elity polityczne w okresie przejścia do demokracji. Analiza porównawcza (Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1996)Google Scholar. Some influences and contacts – mainly of an anecdotal nature – were referenced in works about transitions, see Gómez, Javier Tusell and Carmona, Álvaro Soto, eds., Historia de la Transición y consolidación democrática en España (1975–1986) (Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1995), 3–14 Google Scholar. Some bilateral comparisons explore the entanglements, albeit briefly, see Sánchez, Guillermo A. Pérez, ‘Transiciones y europeísmo: de la Península Ibérica a la Europa Central’, Cuadernos de Historia Contemporánea (Madrid), 24 (2002), 317–33Google Scholar; Enríquez, Carmen Gonzáles, Crisis y cambio en Europa del Este. La transición húngara a la democracia (Madrid: CIS, 2003)Google Scholar.

³⁷ See Roberts and Garton-Ash, eds., Civil Resistance & Power Politics.

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³⁹ Other approaches to comparative transition include: Stoner, Kathryn and McFaul, Michael, eds., Transitions to Democracy: A Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013)Google Scholar. An early comparison of politics of memory is Malefakis, Edward ‘Spain and its Francoist Heritage’, in Herz, John H., ed., From Dictatorship to Democracy, Coping with the Legacies of Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism (London: Greenwood Press 1982)Google Scholar.

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⁴¹ See also Booth, Marilyn, ‘25 Years of Revolution Comparing Revolt and Transition from Europe 1989 to the Arab World’, Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 23 (2014), 99–103 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jérôme Heurtaux, ‘Comparer « transitions » postcommunistes et révoltes arabes. Un point de vue semi-sceptique’, CERI, 2016: http://www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/fr/content/dossiersduceri/comparer-transitions-postcommunistes-et-revoltes-arabes-un-point-de-vue-semi-sceptique (last visited 17 Aug. 2017); Conferencia sobre Transición y Consolidación Democráticas (Madrid: Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE), Siddharth Mehta Ediciones, 2002).

⁴² For such comparative histories, see, for example, Wiarda, Howard J., Herspring, Dale Roy and Skelley, Esther M., Development on the Periphery: Democratic Transitions in Southern and Eastern Europe (Boulder, CO.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006)Google Scholar; Bauerkamper, Arnd, ‘Wege zur europäischen Geschichte. Ertrage und Perspektiven der vergleichs- und transfergeschichtlichen Forschung’, in Arndt, Agnes, Haberlen, Joachim C. and Reinecke, Christiane, eds., Vergleichen, Verflechten, Verwirren? Europäische Geschichtsschreibung zwischen Theorie und Praxis (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 33–60 Google Scholar.

⁴³ Miguel Ángel Ruiz Carnicer, ‘Leftist Fascists, Rightist Communists: The Case of Spanish Fascists Confronted with Third World Communism and Reformists in Eastern Europe’ (paper presented at ‘Entangled Transitions’ conference, University of Leuven, 8–10 Dec. 2014).

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⁵³ See also the role of the story of Instituto de Estudios Soviéticos: http://elpais.com/diario/1990/10/26/espana/656895608_850215.html (last visited 27 July 2017). It was inaugurated in 1990 when Gorbachev visited Spain to encourage Spanish-Soviet cooperation. On its board were many social democratic politicians who had been involved in spreading the message of the Spanish transición.

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⁶⁰ Wetzel, Anne and Orbie, Jan, eds., The Substance of EU Democracy Promotion: Concepts and Cases (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For such a narrative, see also, for example, José Manuel Barroso's speech commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of 1956: ‘Acting Together: The Legacy of 1956’, Budapest, 23 October 2006 at http://ec.europa.eu/dorie/fileDownload.do;jsessionid=d7QJlklkU6sQYNwIDUgDVo3zCkc2wKqZj0oQB0LM2cRnbGEAeExh!-898031139?docId=155350&cardId=155350 (last visited 12 July 2017).

⁶¹ As far as Germany's role was concerned see Del Pero's and Guirao's and Gavin's chapters in Mario Del Pero, Víctor Gavín, Fernando Guirao and Antonio Varsori, eds., Democrazie. L‘Europa meridionale e la fine delle dittature (Firenze: Le Monnier, 2010); del Pero, Mario, ‘A European Solution for a European Crisis. The International Implications of Portugal's Revolution’, Journal of European Integration History, 15, 1 (2009), 15–34 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sánchez, Antonio Muñoz, ‘A European Answer to the Spanish Question: The SPD and the End of the Franco Dictatorship’, Journal of European Integration History, 15, 1 (2009), 77–94 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁰² Thomas, Maria, ‘Twentieth-Century Catholicisms: Religion as Prison, as Haven, as Clamp’, in Graham, Helen, ed., Interrogating Francoism: History and Dictatorship in Twentieth-Century Spain (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 27–48, 40Google Scholar; Graham, Helen, The War and its Shadow: Spain's Civil War in Europe's Long Twentieth Century (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

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