WHAT DOES THE TERM TOGATA ‘REALLY’ MEAN?

Abstract This article aims to shed fresh light on the meaning of the term togata. It conducts an analysis of the term as it appeared in ancient sources,1 investigating in particular both how and why ancient authors across several periods focussed their attention on the togata. The paper will also distinguish between the attestation of the term togata in ancient writers, who are likely to have actually watched these theatrical performances in person and known more directly what they were talking about, and the usage of the term by later grammarians, who would have had no opportunity to watch such performances. These later authors, rather, were simply guessing what kind of theatrical representation could have been performed onstage (much as we do nowadays) and did so by adopting obvious differences in terminology.

Analysis of ancient sources referring to the togata shows how different authors perceived and described the theatrical category: this could be due to the contradictory nature of these ancient sources, as Wiseman has observed, 6 as well as to different systems of nomenclature, as Manuwald has pointed out. 7 Here, I do not assume that all the ancient sources refer to the same thing. Furthermore, given the variable validity of the sources, I call into question their being attributed equal weight. In other words, my main aim is to reopen the togata file. I shall begin by analysing the ancient sources for togatae written by those who might actually have seen them, or at least were more likely to have been well informed about them, having been alive when they were being performed. In the second part of this article, I shall investigate the dramatic classification made by later writers, who delved into the nomenclature of the togata alongside other literary genres of the Mid Republic. sed quid ego populi Romani animum uirtutemque commemoro, libertatem iam ex diuturna seruitute dispicientis, in eo homine cui tum petenti iam aedilitatem ne histriones quidem coram sedenti pepercerunt? nam cum ageretur togata 'Simulans', ut opinor, caterua tota clarissima concentione in ore impuri hominis imminens contionata est: huic, Tite, tua post principia atque exitus uitiosae uitae-! sedebat examinatus, et is, qui antea cantorum conuicio contiones celebrare suas solebat, cantorum ipsorum uocibus eiciebatur. et quoniam facta mentio est ludorum, ne illud quidem praetermittam, in magna uarietate sententiarum numquam ullum fuisse locum, in quo aliquid a poeta dictum cadere in tempus nostrum uideretur, quod aut populum uniuersum fugeret aut non exprimeret ipse actor. 9 Cicero mentions a togata on stage in 57 B.C.E. As Cicero was in exile during this period, 10 he could not have watched the play himself, but possibly knew something about it from others.  9 Transl. G. Manuwald, Roman Drama. A Reader (London, 2010), 71: 'But why should I recall the Roman people's spirit and courage, when they were just discerning liberty after long servitude, in the case of this man, whom not even the actors have spared, when he was already a candidate for the aedileship and sitting before them? For when a togata, entitled Simulans ('The Pretender'), I believe, was being performed, the whole group of actors publicly harangued him in splendid harmony, bending towards the face of the polluted man: "This, Titus, is the sequel for you and the outcome of your vicious life!" He sat there entirely put out of his senses, and he who previously used to fill his popular assemblies with abuse of hired singers was now driven off by the voices of actual singers. And since mention has been made of the games, I will not omit this detail, namely that amid the great variety of utterances there has never been a passage in which something said by the poet seemed to apply to our time that either escaped the whole populace or was not expressed by the actor himself.' 10 See G. Petrone, 'Lo spazio delle emozioni teatrali, tra storiografia e politica, secondo la testimonianza di Cicerone', Ὅρμος. Ricerche di Storia Antica 3 (2011), 130-9. Cf. also Wiseman (n. 6), 214.
The play, entitled Simulans, on the basis of a fragment attested by Antonius Panurgus, 11 can be attributed to the playwright Afranius. During this performance, the aforementioned fragment huic, Tite, | tua post principia atque exitus uitiosae uitae was pronounced against Clodius, 12 who sat dispirited and humiliated. 13 Beyond the political implications of these lines, 14 the meaning of the term togata is difficult to understand. The expression cum ageretur togata suggests that Cicero was talking about something his audience was familiar with; consequently, he did not consider it necessary to clarify further. In any case, the mention of the term togata here is provocative: Cicero might just as easily have written comoedia. His preference for togata suggests a desire to emphasize the term but to what end? He might have deliberately used the word to differentiate togata from other Mid Republican literary genres, such as the palliata and the praetexta. The quotation of Afranius' lines, the use of the Roman name Titus-not attested in the palliata, where we find instead Greek and invented names-and, above all, the usage of the term togata itself suggest that Cicero was alluding to something far removed from the Greek world and more closely related to the Latin world; for these reasons, he used the term togata to refer to the play Simulans.

I.2. Varro
In his De lingua Latina, Varro reports that a togata was staged in the city of Rome during the Ludi Apollinares (Ling. 6.18-19): name because on that day the women sacrifice to Iuno Caprotina in Latium, and they do so under a caprificus "wild fig tree"; from the fig tree they use a branch. As to why this was done, the praetexta play presented to them at the games for Apollo has taught the people.' 16 The word transmitted in the manuscripts is togata, but scholars have suggested reading toga instead: see e.g. A. Traglia, Opere di M. Terenzio Varrone (Turin, 1974), 189; F. Coarelli, Il campo Marzio dalle origini alla fine della repubblica (Rome, 1997), 38-9 and 55. On the other hand, G. Manuwald, Fabulae praetextae. Spuren einer literarischen Gattung der Römer (Munich, 2001), 24-9 rejects the term toga and argues that togata is the most acceptable form. See also Wiseman (n. 6), 194 who argues that 'Varro refers to a play that is both. That is because Varro had his own categorisation of dramatic forms.' M. Meulder, 'Varron, De lingua latina 6, 18-19: "toga praetexta", "togata praetexta", ou "togata, praetexta"?', Latomus 75 (2016), 862-87, at 865-7 tries to solve the above-mentioned philological issue by reading cur hoc togata, praetexta data eis, Apollinaribus ludis docuit populum. He suggests the following: a togata was staged; praetexta data is an absolute ablative rather than a nominative like togata; and a toga pratexta was given to women 'en récompense de leur conduite courageuse' (887). 17 On this passage, cf. also A. Lesky, 'Fabula crepidata', RhM 95 (1952), 357-69, especially 361-2. specialization praetexta; 18 this suggests that Varro refers to a word which denotes 'generic category'. 19 We do not actually know whether or not Varro watched this play; however, since togatae were still performed even in the Neronian era (see below), Varro might have had the chance to watch the play or at least to learn about the performance somehow. Varro not only focusses his attention on the representation of a togata in this passage but also (Ling. 5.25.8) reports that one of Afranius' togatae was performed: (…) puticuli quod putescebant ibi cadauera proiecta, qui locus publicus ultra Exquilias. itaque eum Afranius puticulos in togata appellat, quod inde suspiciunt per puteos lumen. 20 Varro explains the etymology of puticuli, reflecting on its geographical origin as well as mentioning a public place beyond the Esquiline called puticuli by the playwright Afranius. 21 Accordingly, he identifies something linked to the city of Rome in this unknown togata, the meaning of which seems to be 'type of comedy', as de Melo has recently highlighted: 'The older usage would restrict togata to a type of Roman comedy not based on a Greek original, and here Varro is following this older usage.
In the technical usage, where togata is a broader term, the kind of comedy not based on a Greek original would be called tabernaria (…)'. 22

I.3. Horace
Horace, in the Ars poetica 23 (Ars P. 285-91), appears to pay attention to the togata. He declares that the togata and the praetexta 24 represented 'things done at home' in a sophisticated way that involves an elevated register; their authors, then, deserve to be celebrated:  20 Transl. de Melo (n. 15), 269: '(…) they are puticuli because the dead bodies thrown in putescebant "used to rot" there; this public burial place is beyond the Esquiline. Hence Afranius calls it the puticuli "pit-lights" in a togata play, because from there they look up at the lumen "light" through the putei. Horace proudly says that Latin poets were involved in literary genres different from the Greek ones. 26 This reveals a competitiveness between Greek and Latin traditions, 27 given that Latin poets focussed on matters with 'emotional overtones'. 28 Moreover, as Petrone has highlighted, Horace's reference to the term togata in this passage is intriguing because it suggests how such a theatrical genre was not far removed from the onstage representation of 'motivi di riflessione sul costume patrio e sui comportamenti morali'. 29 However, the meaning of togata deserves attention: indeed, the line uel qui praetextas uel qui docuere togatas alluding to the staging of praetexta and togata 'is more difficult than it seems because the meaning of these terms is not agreed'. 30 That is, it is not possible to be sure about the meaning of the term togata here, whether it was meant as comedy-and thus in comparison with, and in opposition to, praetexta-or should rather be interpreted as a generic theatrical category, mistakenly meant as comedy, as mentioned by Diomedes (see below), who talks about communis error in the usage of the word togata in Horace's Ars poetica. 31

I.4. Seneca the Younger
Since there is evidence to prove that togatae were still staged in Seneca's time, 32 Seneca himself may well have watched these plays. In any case, Seneca is likely to have known what he was dealing with when he used the term togata. In his Letters, he appears to present a nuanced meaning of the term, treating togata as a kind of theatrical performance somewhere between comedy and tragedy. Indeed, in the eighth letter 33   , 87-108. 35 Transl. adapted from M. Graver and A.A. Long, Seneca. Letters on Ethics to Lucilius (Chicago and London, 2015), 39: 'So many poets say things that philosophers have said, or that they ought to have said! I need not refer to the tragedians or to the authors of our togatae (for those plays too have a Seneca discusses wisdom and poets. 36 By using the expression inter comoedias ac tragoedias, he alludes to a theatrical genre between comedy and tragedy, perhaps a play with elements belonging to both theatrical traditions, in which it is possible to find aliquid seueritatis. 37 Here, the use of the adjective nostrae is attention-grabbing: togatae nostrae could refer to the fact that Seneca acknowledged the belief that these plays were not based on Greek originals, and perhaps aimed to emphasize a totally Roman literary genre. Also of interest is another passage of Seneca, namely Ep. 89.7: sapientia est, quam Graeci σοφίαν uocant. hoc uerbo Romani quoque utebantur, sicut philosophia nunc quoque utuntur. quod et togatae tibi antiquae probabunt et inscriptus Dossenni monumento titulus: Hospes resiste et sophian Dossenni lege. 38 Seneca mentions both togatae and philosophy: in the togatae there were elements of Roman sapientia defined as perfectum bonum mentis humanae (89.4). This definition is reminiscent of Stoic ethics 39 and links the discussion of philosophical questions to the togatae, which would include traits of popular wisdom, viewed as a guide for life, and the model of the perfect sage. In this way, Seneca's testimony highlights wisdom as one of the togata themes and a goal which is to be put into practice every day. 40 Furthermore, such a topic might be shared by togatae antiquae and Atellanae: Dossennus is the name of the smart hunchback of the (fabula) Atellana, 41 though it is not certain whether Seneca is making reference to this character here. The reference to philosophical issues in the togata, according to the parallelism put forward by Seneca, prompts us to briefly analyse the extant fragments for hints of these themes. Closer scrutiny of the remaining fragments of the togata would confirm the presence of philosophical themes connected with popular wisdom and Stoic ethics, since we read, for instance, in Afranius 23-4 R 3 alius est Amor, | alius Cupido 42 and in Afranius 221 R 3 amabit serious element; they are in between tragedy and comedy). Plenty of highly eloquent verses are to be found even in the mime. Many lines of Publilius are such as would befit not only the writer of comedy but even the tragedian.' 36 See also Lesky (n. 17), 360. 37 On this, cf. F. Leo, Geschichte der römischen Literatur (Berlin, 1913), 378. 38 Transl. adapted from Graver and Long (n. 35), 320: 'Sophia is actually the Greek word for "wisdom". Romans too used to speak of sophia, just as we still use the Greek word philosophia. sapiens, cupient ceteri. 43 Whoever the speaker is, both lines can be interpreted as having Stoic undertones, given the distinction between the 'wise person' and 'all others'. Stoic definitions of erōs usually avoid defining the term as a type of desire (epithumia denotes a morally and intellectually defective passion), precisely so that they can say that the good/ wiser person experiences erōs without experiencing desire. 44 , 1985), 147-51. 49 Transl. adapted from D.A. Russell, Quintilian. The Orator's Education. Books 9-10 (Cambridge, MA and London, 2001), 307: 'It is in comedy that our steps most falter. True, Varro (quoting the view of Aelius Stilo) held that the Muses would have talked like Plautus if they had chosen to speak Latin; true, older critics extol Caecilius; true, Terence's works are attributed to Scipio Africanus (and they are in fact the most elegant of their kind, and would have possessed even more attraction if they had been written wholly in trimeters): nevertheless, we barely achieve a faint shadow, and I have come to think that the Latin language is incapable of acquiring that grace which was vouchsafed uniquely to the Athenians-for the Greeks too failed to achieve it in any other dialect of their language. In the togatae This passage occurs within a discussion related to Mid Republican drama. In Inst. 10.1.98, Quintilian mentions tragedies; he then refers to Latin comedies, quoting the most important authors of that period-above all, Plautus, with the famous remark that even Muses would have chosen to speak in Plautus' language. 50 Quintilian shows his knowledge of the system of Roman drama, and lists tragedies, comedies and then togatae. With regard to the latter, he is not interested in the genre as a whole but only in Afranius, who was excellent in togatae. Here the term might probably refer to a theatrical genre between tragedies and comedies, as would be reasonable to suppose on the basis of the distinction Quintilian appears to make in his list, talking about tragedies, then comedies and afterwards togatae. There are however no additional clues as to what the author meant using the term togata in the passage, and thus every kind of further suggestions would be too speculative. In any case, Quintilian gives us an opportunity to observe the possible bond between the togata playwright and the Attic grace. He affirms that Latin language cannot acquire Attic grace, which characterized the Athenians, and that only Afranius was excellent enough in his plays to achieve that Attic grace. Sadly, according to Quintilian, it is a pity that he contaminated his plays with the onstage representation of pederasty. 51 Let us now turn away from Cicero, Varro, Horace, Seneca and Quintilian, to investigate the grammarians and commentators who dealt with the togata in their works. On the basis of their interests as well as their standards of knowledge, they presumably aimed to improve the nomenclature related to the togata alongside other theatrical genres of the Mid Republic. The results of their discussions, however, as I shall show below, appear particularly problematic and nebulous.

II.1. Diomedes
To illustrate the semantic (and multivalent) significance of the word togata between later grammarians and commentators, I shall begin by focussing on a complex passage from Diomedes (Keil, Gramm. Lat. 1.489.14-19), who discusses different applications and meanings of dramatic terms such as togata, tabernaria and comoedia, and reports that: praetextatae autem dicuntur, quia fere regum uel magistratuum qui praetexta utuntur in eius modi fabulas acta conprehenduntur. secunda species est togatarum quae tabernariae dicuntur et humilitate personarum et argumentorum similitudine comoediis pares, in quibus non magistratus regesue sed humiles homines et priuatae domus inducuntur, quae quidem olim quod tabulis tegerentur, communiter tabernae uocabantur. tertia species est fabularum Latinarum quae a ciuitate Oscorum Atella, in qua primum coeptae, appellatae sunt Atellanae, argumentis dictisque iocularibus similes satyricis fabulis Graecis. quarta species est planipedis, qui Graece dicitur mimus. ideo autem Latine planipes dictus (…). 52 The first sentence of Diomedes' passage (initio togatae … cernebantur) is challenging, as it could be interpreted in various ways. Indeed, togatae could be considered either the subject of the verb or the predicate in the sentence. However, a comparison with similar constructions in Diomedes, in which the predicate always follows the subject (cf., for example, Keil, Gramm. Lat. 1.481 qui pes creticus κατὰ τροχαῖον dicitur; 1.484 hexameter uersus epos dicitur; 1.507 iambicus scazon idem hipponacteus ab auctore dicitur; 1.524 alter pentameter iambicus dicitur) may suggest that the word togatae is the subject of the verb in the sentence, and the term comoediae, to be rendered as 'Greek comedies', the predicate. Togatae were once identified with the Greek term comoediae, because-as Diomedes reports later-omnia in publico honore confusa cernebantur. Diomedes' passage may testify to an initial sense of the word, diachronically specified as an 'ancient' use, denoting (1) a presumably comic Roman play vaguely (confusa) identified with comoedia. Diomedes then refers to further confusion over the term togata, which could apparently be used in three further senses: (2) as a general term denoting Roman tragedy and comedy together (in praetextatas et tabernarias diuidebantur); (3) or as a general term denoting a Roman genre comprising four different sub-genres, namely praetextata, tabernaria, Atellana and planipes (Diomedes' definition); or (4) as an imprecise synonym of tabernaria ( pro tabernariis … communis error), 53 denoting a Roman comedy, which is different from Greek comedy, as Diomedes later emphasizes: 52 Transl. Manuwald (n. 9), 85 and 87: 'In the beginning togatae were just called comoediae, since everything that was publicly respected was perceived without distinctions. These togatae were later divided into praetextatae and tabernariae. Togatae is the name for those dramas that are written according to customs and dress of men in the toga, i.e. the Romans (for the toga is Roman), just as, according to Varro, Greek dramas are named after the dress in the same way and called palliatae. This term 'togata', even though it is a general expression, is nevertheless used in a special sense instead of tabernariae, not only by common error, which calls Afranius' plays togatae, but also by that of a poet, such as Horace, who says 'both those who produced praetextae and those who produced togatae'. There are basically as many forms of togata plays as there are also of palliata plays. For the first form of togatae are those plays that are called praetextatae, in which business of generals and public affairs are carried out and Roman kings or leaders are shown, similar to tragoediae in the dignity and elevation of the characters. And these are called praetextatae, since generally the deeds of kings and magistrates, who use the toga praetexta ('purple-bordered gown'), are presented in dramas of this type. The second form of togatae are those plays that are called tabernariae and are corresponding to comoediae in the humility of characters and the similarity of plot; in these dramas, instead of magistrates or kings, humble men and private dwellings are presented, which once upon a time were generally called tabernae ('huts') as they were covered with tabulae ('wooden tiles'). The third species of Latin plays are those that are called Atellanae after the Oscan community of Atella, in which they first began, in plot and jocular expressions similar to Greek satyr-plays. The fourth form is that of planipes, which is called mimus in Greek. But it is called planipes in Latin (…)'. 53 On this, cf. also Brink (n. 26), 320, who discusses Diomedes' sentence in relation to the above-mentioned passage of Horace about the praetexta and the togata. He reports that Diomedes togata tabernaria a comoedia differt, quod in comoedia Graeci ritus inducuntur personaeque Graecae, Laches Sostrata; in illa uero Latinae. togatas tabernarias in scenam datauerunt praecipue duo, L. Afranius and C. Quintius. nam Terentius and Caecilius comoedias scripserunt. 54 Diomedes himself seems to prefer meanings (2) and (3). Diomedes' attempt to improve theatrical nomenclature suggests how complex it was to understand Mid Republican dramatic genres. 55 To the same extent, in the following section, I shall draw attention to Donatus' interests in the treatment of the togata.

II.2. Donatus
Donatus is likewise interested in the togata, and in several passages he uses the term with different meanings. He refers to the togata as a kind of Latin fabula, as we read in Comm. ad Ter. Ad. 7: (…) ut apud Graecos δρᾶμα sic apud Latinos generaliter fabula dicitur, cuius species sunt tragoedia, comoedia, togata, tabernaria, praetexta, crepidata, Atellana, μῖμος, Rhintonica. 56 Yet he makes mention of togata in comparison with palliata in terms of the onstage portrayal of slaves: while, in fact, the palliatae playwrights portrayed in their works slaves who were smarter than their masters, this changes in the togatae, as attested in Comm. ad Ter. Eun. 57 concessum est in palliata poetis comicis seruos dominis sapientiores fingere, quod idem in togata non fere licet. 57 In Comm. ad Ter. Ad. 1.1, we find the usage of the term togata in relation to the name of the comedy Adelphoe: sed et Graeci nominis euphoniam perderet et praeterea togata uideretur. 58 Furthermore, Donatus appears to consider the togata a genre distinct from both tragedy and comedy-and perhaps as a genre between the former and the latter-as in Excerpta de comoedia 5.4: comoediam apud Graecos dubium est quis primus inuenerit, apud Romanos certum: et comoediam et tragoediam et togatam primus Liuius Andronicus repperit. 59 However, it must be said that he later clarifies that togata was probably a form of comedy (Excerpta de comoedia 6.1 and 6.5): palliata est aut togata aut tabernaria aut Atellana aut mimus aut Rinthonica aut planipedia. (…) (6.5) comoediarum formae sunt tres: palliatae Graecum habitum referentes, togatae iuxta formam personarum habitum togarum desiderantes, quas nonnulli tabernarias uocant, Atellanae salibus et iocis compositae, quae in se non haberent nisi uetustatum elegantias. 60 The term togatae is mentioned with palliatae and Atellanae as a species of comedy, in which characters wear the toga (iuxta … desiderantes). However, people also referred to togatae using the term tabernariae 61 -cf. Diomedes' passage discussed above (togatas autem … pro tabernariis). The above-mentioned passages reveal how Donatus used the term togata by adopting, in different parts of his work, the same term but with several meanings: this denotes how such a theatrical category might have perhaps been a 'serious' hindrance for the grammarian.

II.3. Ps.-Acro
The same complexity of nomenclature is found in Ps.-Acro, who in the Schol Ps.-Acro comments on a verse of Horace (see also discussion above). What is striking in this comment is the reference to the various meanings of togata: Ps.-Acro mentions praetextae and togatae, differentiating the first, tragedy, from the second, comedy. Curiously, he then reports that, according to some people, praetexta and togata are both comedies: togatae are 'comedies with Greek subjects', while praetextae are 'comedies with Latin plots'. This testimony reveals a complex picture in the catalogue of dramatic genres. In particular, what may surprise modern readers is the reference to the togata as a comedy with Greek subjects; indeed, this has the potential to make radical changes to our understanding of this literary genre. Despite being an openly Roman genre, it portrayed onstage motifs associated with the Greek world, as may be confirmed by reading internal pieces of evidence. 63 Furthermore, such testimony may provide an opportunity to highlight the boundaries between different genres, as well as the uncertain definition of another genre, the praetexta, which is surprisingly described as a (Latin) comedy rather than a (Latin) tragedy. To explain further how Ps.-Acro appears to adopt the term togata in a more generic sense, one may read the 60 Transl. Manuwald (n. 9), 89 and 91: 'Play is a general term: its two foremost types are tragoedia and comoedia. Tragoedia, if the plot is Latin, is called praetexta. Comoedia, however, has many forms: for it is either palliata or togata or Atellana or mimus or Rhinthonica or planipedia. (…) Of comedy there are three types: palliatae, reproducing Greek attire, togatae, requiring in addition to the type of characters the wearing of togas, which some call tabernariae, Atellanae, consisting of puns and jokes, which have nothing in them if not the elegance of age.' 61  is, comedy with Greek themes) and the togata (that is, comedy with Roman themes), and considers all these as sub-comic forms. 69 Here, we are clearly far away from the first attestations of the word togata, whose ancient authors-as stated above-were contemporaneous with the kind of performance they were writing about: John the Lydian, instead, merely repeats a set of scholarly clichés about ancient literary genres in the historical and cultural period in which he lives.

II.5. Evanthius
As a final example of the later grammarians and commentators who addressed the togata in their works, I quote Evanthius (De fabula 4.1): 70 illud uero tenendum est, post νέαν κωμῳδίαν Latinos multa fabularum genera protulisse, ut togatas ab scaenicis atque argumentis Latinis, praetextatas a dignitate personarum tragicarum ex Latina historia, Atellanas a ciuitate Campaniae, ubi actitatae sunt primae, Rinthonicas ab auctoris nomine, tabernarias ab humilitate argumenti ac stili, mimos ab diuturna imitatione uilium rerum ac leuium personarum. 71 Here, the grammarian refers to a series of Latin dramas on stage. The first to be mentioned are the togatae, characterized as ab scaenicis atque argumentis Latinis. He then specifies that the praetextatae are based on tragic Latin history (that is, Latin tragedies), and the tabernariae on humilitate argumenti ac stili (that is, Latin comedies). Compared with Diomedes who considers the tabernaria to be a form of togata (as discussed above), Evanthius differentiates togata and tabernaria. The latter is not considered a subset of the former. In the nomenclature of Evanthius, togata appears to be a category which is neither a type of comedy (tabernaria) nor of tragedy ( praetexta). Moreover, in this case attempts in giving nomenclature may depend on the way in which later grammarians and commentators considered the Roman Mid Republican dramatic genres with hindsight.

FINAL REMARKS
The main aim of this paper has been to re-investigate the little-studied dramatic genre of the togata, with a focus on its meaning. In particular, I have discussed the ancient attestations of the word togata, distinguishing ancient source-authors who probably watched togatae-and/or, in any case, knew what they were talking about-from later grammarians who aimed to improve the complex nomenclature relating to Mid Republican drama. Close analysis of the sources on the term togata challenges our knowledge of the Roman Republican drama. Ancient authors provide us with a variety 69 See further Lesky (n. 17), 365. 70 On the general structure of the De fabula, see G. Cupaiuolo, Evanzio. De fabula. Introduzione, testo critico, traduzione e note di commento (Naples, 1979), 14-87. 71 Transl. Manuwald (n. 9), 89: 'But what has to be borne in mind is that, after New Comedy, the Latins have produced many kinds of dramas, such as togatae based on Latin actors and plots, praetextatae based on characters of tragic dignity and stories from Latin history, Atellanae named after a township in Campania, where they were first acted [i.e. Atella], Rhinthonicae called after the author's name [i.e. Rhinthon], tabernariae with humble plot and style, mimi named after the constant imitation of cheap things and unimportant characters.' of meanings of the term togata, meanings which seem to be connected not only to its