The first study in this chapter discusses why county lines constitute a form of ‘organised crime’. Accordingly, the study explores the hierarchy, flexible nature and the use of technology within these new drug-dealing operations. While some elements of county lines and associated networks may seem disorganized and decentralised, this is purposeful as it deliberately obfuscates their tactics, planning and organisation. As a consequence, county lines can be considered to be examples of organised crime despite any appearance to the contrary. Critically, the case study also examines the way in which organised crime has been constructed, in particular, how organised crime has often been portrayed by the media as counterproductive if policing efforts concentrated upon this type of timeconsuming crime as opposed to providing a proactive reduction in street-based crime.

As a consequence, policing tends to be focused upon conventional street crime while State crime and State responsibility is, by implication, conveniently neglected by the powers that be. To underscore this disturbing aspect, the study thus shifts attention to understanding county lines through a social harm perspective. From the social harm perspective, those involved in the operation of county lines are both victims and offenders. Hence the case study explores issues of vulnerability, child exploitation and grooming. Ultimately, though, social harm theory is used to focus on the harm caused by the UK government's actions (i.e. austerity agendas) and non-actions (neglecting poverty) which have perpetuated the vulnerability and marginalisation of young people – people who are, as a result, more susceptible to gang recruitment than they otherwise would be.

Drawing on different scholars’ definitions of the peacekeeping role of the UN forces in Bosnia, the ensuing case study discusses the extent to which the ‘peacekeeping’ personnel were involved in human trafficking, sexual exploitation and abuse during their time in war-torn Bosnia. By looking at the nature of the crimes – and the study of structural elements that allowed for continual crimes of harm to be committed on an organised basis – this case study uncovers examples of devastating and unpunished crimes of the powerful. By considering the complexity, as well as the difficulties encountered when researching such crimes, the study concludes that the peacekeepers (as UN agents) committed crimes from above (Tombs and Whyte 2003).