Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-01T00:06:19.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

11 - Nitrogen flows and fate in rural landscapes

from Part III - Nitrogen flows and fate at multiple spatial scales

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2011

By
Pierre Cellier ,
Patrick Durand ,
Nick Hutchings ,
Ulli Dragosits ,
Mark Theobald ,
Jean-Louis Drouet ,
Oene Oenema ,
Albert Bleeker ,
Lutz Breuer  and
Tommy Dalgaard
...Show all authors
Edited by
Mark A. Sutton ,
Clare M. Howard ,
Jan Willem Erisman ,
Gilles Billen ,
Albert Bleeker ,
Peringe Grennfelt ,
Hans van Grinsven  and
Bruna Grizzetti
Pierre Cellier
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Patrick Durand
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Nick Hutchings
Affiliation:
University of Aarhus
Ulli Dragosits
Affiliation:
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
Mark Theobald
Affiliation:
Technical University of Madrid/Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
Jean-Louis Drouet
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Oene Oenema
Affiliation:
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Albert Bleeker
Affiliation:
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Lutz Breuer
Affiliation:
Institute for Landscape Ecology and Resources Management
Tommy Dalgaard
Affiliation:
Aarhus University
Sylvia Duretz
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Johannes Kros
Affiliation:
Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre
Benjamin Loubet
Affiliation:
UMR Environm & Grandes Cultures
Joergen Eivind Olesen
Affiliation:
Aarhus University Department of Agroecology and Environment
Philippe Mérot
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Valérie Viaud
Affiliation:
INRA, France
Wim de Vries
Affiliation:
Wageningen University and Research Centre
Mark A. Sutton
Affiliation:
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
Mark A. Sutton
Affiliation:
NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK
Clare M. Howard
Affiliation:
NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK
Jan Willem Erisman
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
Gilles Billen
Affiliation:
CNRS and University of Paris VI
Albert Bleeker
Affiliation:
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Peringe Grennfelt
Affiliation:
Swedish Environmental Research Institute (IVL)
Hans van Grinsven
Affiliation:
PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
Bruna Grizzetti
Affiliation:
European Commission Joint Research Centre
Get access

Summary

Executive summary

Nature of the problem

  • The transfer of nitrogen by either farm management activities or natural processes (through the atmosphere and the hydrological network) can feed into the N cascade and lead to indirect and unexpected reactive nitrogen emissions.

  • This transfer can lead to large N deposition rates and impacts to sensitive ecosystems. It can also promote further N2O emission in areas where conditions are more favourable for denitrification.

  • In rural landscapes, the relevant scale is the scale where N is managed by farm activities and where environmental measures are applied.

Approaches

  • Mitigating nitrogen at landscape scale requires consideration of the interactions between natural and anthropogenic (i.e. farm management) processes.

  • Owing to the complex nature and spatial extent of rural landscapes, experimental assessments of reactive N flows at this scale are difficult and often incomplete. It should include measurement of N flows in the different compartments of the environment and comprehensive datasets on the environment (soils, hydrology, land use, etc.) and on farm management.

  • Modelling is the preferred tool to investigate the complex relationships between anthropogenic and natural processes at landscape scale although verification by measurements is required. Up to now, no model includes all the components of landscape scale N flows: farm functioning, short range atmospheric transfer, hydrology and ecosystem modelling.

Type
Chapter
Information
The European Nitrogen Assessment
Sources, Effects and Policy Perspectives
 , pp. 229 - 248
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baudry, J., Bunce, R. G. H. and Burel, F. (2000). Hedgerows: an international perspective on their origin, function and management. Journal of Environmental Management, 60, 7–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaujouan, V., Durand, P. and Ruiz, L. (2001). Modelling the effect of the spatial distribution of agricultural practices on nitrogen fluxes in rural catchments. Ecological Modelling, 137, 93–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beven, K. J. (ed.) (1997). Distributed Modelling in Hydrology: Applications of the TOPMODEL Concept. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
Beven, K. J. and Kirkby, M. J. (1979). A physically based variable contributing areas model of basin hydrology. Hydrological Sciences Bulletin, 24, 43–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billen, G. and Garnier, J. (2000). Nitrogen transfers through the Seine drainage network: a budget based on the application of the Riverstrahler model. Hydrobiologia, 410, 139–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billen, G., Thieu, V., Garnier, J. and Silvestre, M. (2009). Modelling the N cascade in regional watersheds: the case study of the Seine, Somme and Scheldt rivers. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 133, 234–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billen, G., Silvestre, M., Grizzetti, B.et al. (2011). Nitrogen flows from European watersheds to coastal marine waters. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bleeker, A. and Erisman, J. W. (1998). Spatial planning as a tool for decreasing nitrogen loads in nature areas. Environmental Pollution, 102, 649–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehlke, J. K. and Denver, J. M. (1995). Combined use of groundwater dating, chemical, and isotopic analyses to resolve the history and fate of nitrate contamination in two agricultural watersheds, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Maryland. Water Resource Research, 31, 2319–2339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouma, J., Varallyay, G. and Batjes, N. H. (1998). Principal land use changes anticipated in Europe. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 67, 103–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brisson, N., Mary, B., Ripoche, D.et al. (1998). STICS: a generic model for the simulation of crops and their water and nitrogen balances. I. Theory and parameterization applied to wheat and corn. Agronomie, 18, 311–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butterbach-Bahl, K., Gundersen, P., Ambus, P.et al. (2011). Nitrogen processes in terrestrial ecosystems. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al., Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cellier, P., Bleeker, A., Bog, E.et al. (2006). Landscape scale assessment of nitrogen interactions. In: The GHG Cycle in the Northern Hemisphere, Open Science Conference, European Commission, Sissi-Lassithi, Crete (GRC), Nov. 14–18/11/2006, p. 149 (oral communication, abstract).
Cirmo, C. P. and McDonnell, J. J. et al. (1997). Linking the hydrologic and biogeochemical controls of nitrogen transport in near-stream zones of temperate-forested catchments: a review. Journal of Hydrology, 199, 88–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., Dentener, F., Hurtmans, D. and Coheur, P. F. (2009). Global ammonia distribution derived from infrared satellite observations. Nature Geoscience, 2, 479–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colbach, N., Lucas, P. and Meynard, J.M. (1997). Influence of crop management on take-all development and disease cycles on winter wheat. Phytopathology, 87, 26–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,COST729 (2009). Nitrogen deposition and Natura 2000 workshop. See http://cost729.ceh.ac.uk/n2kworkshop
Dahm, C. N., Grimm, N. B., Marmonier, P., Valett, H. M. and Vervier, P. (1998). Nutrient dynamics at the interface between surface waters and groundwaters. Freshwater Biology, 40, 427–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalgaard, T. (2009). Landscape agroecology: managing interactions between agriculture, nature and socio-economy. In Proceedings from the Multi-level Processes of Integration and Disintegration, ed. Nagel et al. Green Week Scientific Conference, International Congress Centre, Berlin, Jan. 14–15 2009. Margraf Publishers.Google Scholar
Dalgaard, T., Heidman, T. and Mogensen, L. (2002). Potential N-losses in three scenarios for conversion to organic farming in a local area of Denmark. European Journal of Agronomy, 16, 207–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deffontaines, J.-P., Brossier, J., Benoît, M.et al. (1994). Agricultural practices and water quality: a research development project. In: Brossier, J., Bonneval, Laurence, Landais, E. (eds.), Coll. Science Update, pp. 31–61.
Deffontaines, J. P., Thenail, C. and Baudry, J. (1995). Agricultural systems and landscape patterns – how can we build the relationship?Landscape and Urban Planning, 31, 3–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vries, W., Kros, J. and Velthof, G. (2005). Integrated evaluation of agricultural management on environmental quality with a decision support system. In 3rd International Nitrogen Conference, Oct. 12–16 2004, Nanjing. China, pp. 859–870.
Dinnes, D. L., Karlen, D. L., Jaynes, D. B.et al. (2002). Nitrogen management strategies to reduce nitrate leaching in tile-drained midwestern soils. Agronomy Journal, 94, 153–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dragosits, U., Theobald, M. R., Place, C. J.et al. (2002). Ammonia emission, deposition and impact assessment at the field scale: a case study of sub-grid spatial variability. Environmental Pollution, 117, 147–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dragosits, U., Theobald, M. R., Place, C. J.et al. (2005). Interaction of nitrogen pollutants at the landscape level and abatement strategies. In 3rd International Nitrogen Conference, Nanjing, China, Oct. 12–16 2004, pp. 30–34.
Dragosits, U., Theobald, M. R., Place, C. J., ApSimon, H. M. and Sutton, M. A. (2006). The potential for spatial planning at the landscape level to mitigate the effects of atmospheric ammonia deposition. Environmental Science and Policy, 9, 626–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, P. and Juan Torres, J. L. (1996). Solute transfer in agricultural catchments: the interest and limits of mixing models. Journal of Hydrology, 181, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, P., Breuer, L., Johnes, P.et al. (2011). Nitrogen processes in aquatic ecosystems. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al., Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Forman, R. T. (1997). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University Press.
Forman, R.T. and Godron, M. (1981). Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology. BioScience, 31, 733–740.Google Scholar
Forman, R. T. and Godron, M. (1986). Landscape Ecology. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Fowler, D., Pitcairn, C. E. R., Sutton, M. A.et al. (1998). The mass budget of atmospheric ammonia in woodland within 1 km of livestock buildings. Environmental Pollution, 102, 343–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galloway, J. N., Aber, J. D., Erisman, J. W.et al. (2003). The Nitrogen Cascade. BioScience, 53, 341–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gras, F. and Benoît, M. (1998). Influence des systèmes de culture et des pratiques agricoles sur la qualité de l'eau minérale de Vittel. Le programme de recherches AGREV. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie d'Agriculture de France (FRA), 5, 166–168.
Haag, D. and Kaupenjohann, M. (2001). Landscape fate of nitrate fluxes and emissions in Central Europe: a critical review of concepts, data, and models for transport and retention. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 86, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haycock, N. E., Burt, T. P., Goulding, K. W. T. and Pinay, G. (1997). Buffer Zones: Their Processes and Potential in Water Protection. Quest Environmental, Harpenden, UK.
Hertel, O., Reis, S. and Ambelas Skjøth, C. (2011). Nitrogen processes in the atmosphere. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hill, J. (1998). Application of computational modelling to ammonia dispersion from agricultural sources. PhD thesis, University of London.
Hutchings, N., Dalgaard, T., Rasmussen, B. M.et al. (2004). Watershed nitrogen modelling. In: Controlling Nitrogen Flows and Losses, ed. D. J. Hatch et al.,Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 47–53.
Jarvis, S., Hutchings, N., Brentrup, F., Olesen, J. and Hoek, K. (2011). Nitrogen flows in farming systems across Europe. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment. ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kristensen, S. P., Thenail, C. and Kristensen, L. (2001). Farmers' involvement in landscape activities: An analysis of the relationship between farm location, farm characteristics and landscape changes in two study areas in Jutland, Denmark. Journal of Environmental Management, 61, 301–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kros, J., Vries, W., Voogd, J. C. H., Gies, T. J. A. and Roelsma, J. (2007). Meervoudige milieumonitoring Noordelijke Friese Wouden: gebiedsstatus van emissie en depositie van ammoniak in relatie tot gebiedsdoelstellingen. Alterra, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Leibowitz, L. G., Loehle, C., Li, B. L. and Preston, E. M. (2000). Modeling landscape functions and effects: a network approach. Ecological Modelling, 132, 77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lekkerkerk, L. (1998). Implications of Dutch ammonia policy on the livestock sector. Atmospheric Environment, 32, 581–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipiec, J. and Pniewski, W. (1995). Effects of soil compaction and tillage systems on uptake and losses of nutrients. Soil and Tillage Research, 35, 37–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, J. and Taylor, W.W. (2002). Integrating Landscape Ecology into Natural Resource Management. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loubet, B., Cellier, P., Milford, C. and Sutton, M. A. (2006). A coupled dispersion and exchange model for short-range dry deposition of atmospheric ammonia. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 132, 1733–1763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loubet, B., Asman, W. A., Theobald, M. R.et al. (2009). Ammonia deposition near hot spots: processes, models and monitoring methods. In: Atmospheric Ammonia: Detecting Emission Changes and Environmental Impacts – Results of an Expert Workshop under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, ed. Sutton, M. A., Reis, S. and Baker, S. M. H., Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Marshall, E. (2002). Editorial: introducing field margin ecology in Europe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 89, 1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCollin, D. (2000). Editorial: hedgerow policy and protection – changing paradigms and the conservation ethic. Journal of Environmental Management, 60, 3–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meeus, J. H. A. (1993). The transformation of agricultural landscapes in Western Europe. Science of the Total Environment, 129, 171–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molenat, J., Gascuel-Odoux, C., Ruiz, L. and Gruau, G. (2008). Role of water table dynamics on stream nitrate export and concentration. in agricultural headwater catchment (France). Journal of Hydrology, 348, 363–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosier, A., Kroeze, C., Nevison, C.et al. (1998). Closing the global N2O budget: nitrous oxide emissions through the agricultural nitrogen cycle. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 52, 225–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mourier, B., Walter, C. and Merot, P. (2008). Soil distribution in valleys according to stream order. CATENA, 72, 395–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oehler, F., Durand, P., Bordenave, P., Saadi, Z. and Salmon-Monviola, J. (2009). Modelling denitrification at the catchment scale. Science of the Total Environment, 405, 1726–1737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oenema, O., Bleeker, A., Braathen, N.A. et al. (2011). Nitrogen in current European policies. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pitcairn, C. E. R., Fowler, D., Leith, I. D.et al. (2003). Bioindicators of enhanced nitrogen deposition. Environmental Pollution, 126, 353–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapport, D. J., Gaudet, C., Karr, J. R.et al. (1998). Evaluating landscape health: integrating societal goals and biophysical process. Journal of Environmental Management, 53, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reay, D. S., Smith, K. A. and Edwards, A. C. (2003). Nitrous oxide emission from agricultural drainage waters. Global Change Biology, 9, 195–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rihm, B. and Kurz, D. (2001). Deposition and critical loads of nitrogen in Switzerland. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 130, 1223–1228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rounsevell, M. D. A., Annetts, J. E., Audsley, E., Mayr, T. and Reginster, I. (2003). Modelling the spatial distribution of agricultural land use at the regional scale. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 95, 465–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholefield, D., Lockyer, D. R.Whitehead, D. C. V. and Tyson, K. C. (1991). A model to predict transformation and losses of N in UK pastures grazed by beef cattle. Plant and Soil, 131, 165–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schou, J. S., Tybirk, K., Løfstrøm, P. and Hertel, O. (2006). Economic and environmental analysis of buffer zones as an instrument to reduce ammonia loads to nature areas. Land Use Policy, 23, 533–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skiba, U., Pitcairn, C., Sheppard, L.et al. (2004). The influence of atmospheric N deposition on nitrous oxide and nitric oxide fluxes and soil ammonium and nitrate concentrations. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, Focus, 4, 37–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J. U., Bradbury, N. J. and AdT, M. (1996). SUNDIAL: a PC-based system for simulating nitrogen dynamics in arable land. Agronomy Journal, 88, 38–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. J. N., Glenn, G. A., Parkinson, R. and Richards, J. P. (2007). Evaluating the implementation of the Nitrates Directive in Denmark and England using an actor-orientated approach. European Environment, 17, 124–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sovik, A. K., Augustin, J., Heikkinen, K.et al. (2006). Emission of the greenhouse gases nitrous oxide and methane from constructed wetlands in Europe. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35, 2360–2373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spieles, D. J. and Mitsch, W. J. (2000). The effects of season and hydrologic and chemical loading on nitrate retention in constructed wetlands: a comparison of low- and high-nutrient riverine systems. Ecological Engineering, 14, 77–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stockle, C. O., Donatelli, M. and Nelson, R. (2003). CropSyst, a cropping systems simulation model. European Journal of Agronomy, 18, 289–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strayer, D., Beighley, R. E., Thompson, L. C.et al. (2003). Effects of land cover on stream ecosystems: roles of empirical models and scaling issues. Ecosystems, 6, 407–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, M. A., Dragosits, U., Theobald, M. R.et al. (2004). The role of trees in landscape planning to reduce the impacts of atmospheric ammonia deposition. In: Landscape Ecology of Trees and Forests, ed. R. Smithers, IALE (UK)/ Woodland Trust, Grantham, UK, pp. 143–150.
Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Erisman, J. W.et al. (2007). Challenges in quantifying biosphere-atmosphere exchange of nitrogen species. Environmental Pollution, 150, 125–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erismar, J. W.et al. (2011). The challenge to integrate nitrogen science and policies. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, C. C., Nguyen, M. L. and Sukias, J. P. S. (2003). Using constructed wetlands to treat subsurface drainage from intensively grazed dairy pastures in New Zealand. Water Science and Technology, 48, 207–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thenail, C. (2002). Relationships between farm characteristics and the variation of the density of hedgerows at the level of a micro-region of bocage landscape: study case in Brittany, France. Agricultural Systems, 71, 207–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thenail, C. and Baudry, J. (2004). Variation of farm spatial land use pattern according to the structure of the hedgerow network (bocage) landscape: a case study in northeast Brittany. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 101(1), 53–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thenail, C. and Baudry, J. (2005). Farm riparian land use and management: driving factors and tensions between technical and ecological functions. Environmental Management, 36, 640–653.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theobald, M. R., Milford, C., Hargreaves, K. J.et al. (2001). Potential for ammonia recapture by farm woodlands: design and application of a new experimental facility. The ScientificWorld, 1(S2), 791–801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theobald, M. R., Dragosits, U., Place, C. J.et al. (2004). Modelling nitrogen fluxes at the landscape scale. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, Focus, 4, 135–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theobald, M. R., Bealey, W. J., Tang, Y. S., Vallejo, A. and Sutton, M. A. (2009). A simple model for screening the local impacts of atmospheric ammonia. Science of The Total Environment, 407, 6024–6033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thöni, L., Brang, P., Braun, S., Seitler, E. and Rihm, B. (2004). Ammonia monitoring in Switzerland with passive samplers: patterns, determinants and comparison with modelled concentrations. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 98, 93–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, B. L., Meyer, W. B. and Skole, D. L. (1994). Global land-use land-cover change – towards an integrated study. Ambio, 23, 91–95.Google Scholar
Jaarsveld, J. A. (1995). Modelling the long-term atmospheric behaviour of pollutants on various spatial scales. PhD Thesis, Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht.Google Scholar
Pul, W.A.J., Jaarsveld, J.A., Vellinga, O.S., Broek, M. and Smits, M.C.J. (2008). The VELD experiment: An evaluation of the ammonia emissions and concentrations in an agricultural area. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 8086–8095Google Scholar
Viaud, V., Merot, P. and Baudry, J. (2004). Hydrochemical buffer assessment in agricultural landscapes: from local to catchment scale. Environmental Management, 34, 559–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vogt, J., Puumalainen, J., Kennedy, P. and Folving, S. (2004). Integrating information on river networks, catchments and major forest types: towards the characterisation and analysis of European landscapes. Landscape Urban Planning, 67, 27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weathers, K., Cadenasso, M. and Pickett, S. (2001). Forest edges as nutrient and pollutant concentrators: Potential synergisms between fragmentation, forest canopies, and the atmosphere. Conservation Biology, 15, 1506–1514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westergaard, K. (2006). The landscape composition of organic and conventional, dairy and crop farms in two different geological regions in Denmark. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 117, 63–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willems, E., Vandevoort, C., Willekens, A. and Buffaria, B. (2000). Landscape and land cover diversity index. In: From Land Cover to Landscape Diversity in the European Union, European Commission: DG AGRI, EUROSTAT and the Joint Research Centre (Ispra).Google Scholar
Woltemade, C. J. (2000). Ability of restored wetlands to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in agricultural drainage water. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 55, 303–312.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×