Rezende, G, Roque-Afonso, AM, Samuel, D, et al. Viral and clinical factors associated with the fulminant course of hepatitis A infection. Hepatology 2003;38:613–18.Google Scholar

Robertson, BH, Jansen, RW, Khanna, B, et al. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographical regions. J Gen Virol 1992;73:1365–77.Google Scholar

Fujiwara, K, Yokosuka, O, Fukai, K, et al. Analysis of full-length hepatitis A virus genome in sera from patients with fulminant and self-limited acute type A hepatitis. J Hepatol 2001;35:112–19.Google Scholar

Taylor, GM, Goldin, RD, Karayiannis, P, et al. In situ hybridization studies in hepatitis A infection. Hepatology 1992;16:642–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ticehurst, JR, Racaniello, VR, Baroudy, BM, et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of hepatitis A virus cDNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983;80:5885–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Koff, RS. Hepatitis, A. Lancet 1998;351:1643–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Craig, AS, Schaffner, W. Prevention of hepatitis A with the hepatitis A vaccine. N Engl J Med 2004;350:476–81.Google Scholar

Nelson, N. Hepatitis, A outbreaks. Presented at: Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices; October 25, 2017; Atlanta, GA. Available at: www.mdedge.com/familymedicine/article/155079/vaccines/cdc-provides-advice-recent-hepatitis-outbreaks [last accessed June 12, 2020].Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis Surveillance Report 59. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004:1–60.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant – Monaca, Pennsylvania, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1155–7.Google Scholar

Wheeler, C, Vogt, TM, Armstrong, GL, et al. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onions. N Engl J Med 2005;353:890–7.Google Scholar

Hutin, YJF, Pool, V, Cramer, EH, et al. A multistate, foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A. N Engl J Med 1999;340:595–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Weinberg, M, Hopkins, J, Farrington, L, et al. Hepatitis A in Hispanic children who live along the United States– Mexico border: the role of international travel and food-borne exposures. Pediatrics 2004;114:e68–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hadler, SC, Erben, JJ, Francis, DP, et al. Risk factors for hepatitis A in day-care centers. J Infect Dis 1982;145:255–61.Google Scholar

Benenson, MW, Takafuji, ET, Bancroft, WH, et al. A military community outbreak of hepatitis type A related to transmission in a child care facility. Am J Epidemiol 1980;112:471–81.Google Scholar

Vernon, AA, Schable, C, Francis, D. A large outbreak of hepatitis A in a daycare center: association with non-toilet-trained children and persistence of IgM antibody to hepatitis A virus. Am J Epidemiol 1982;115:325–31.Google Scholar

Hadler, SC, Webster, HM, Erber, JJ, et al. Hepatitis A in day care centers: a community-wide assessment. N Engl J Med 1980;302:1222–7.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral hepatitis outbreaks. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2019. Available at: www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/outbreaks/hepatitisaoutbreaks.htm [last accessed June 12, 2020].Google Scholar

Balistreri, WF. Viral hepatitis. Emerg Clin North Am 1991;9:365–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leach, C. Hepatitis A in the United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004;23:551–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jung, YM, Park, SJ, Kim, JS, et al. Atypical manifestations of hepatitis A infection: a prospective, multicenter study in Korea. J Med Virol 2010;82:1318–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rachima, CM, Cohen, E, Garty, M. Acute hepatitis A: combination of relapsing and the cholestatic forms, two rare variants. Am J Med Sci 2000;319: 417–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schiff, ER. Atypical clinical manifestations of hepatitis A. Vaccine 1992;10(Suppl1):S18–S20.Google Scholar

Ozcay, F, Canan, O, Akcan, B, et al. Hepatitis A super infection as a cause of liver failure in a child with Wilson’s disease. Turk J Pediatr 2007;49:199–202.Google Scholar

Ciocca, M, Moreira-Silva, SF, Alegria, S, et al. Hepatitis A as an etiologic agent of acute liver failure in Latin America. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26:711–15.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999;48:1–39.Google Scholar

Kim, HY, Eyheramonho, MB, Pichavant, M, et al. A polymorphism in TIM1 is associated with susceptibility to severe hepatitis A virus infection in humans. J Clin Invest 2011;121:1111–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Arora, NK, Mathur, P, Ahuja, A, Oberoi, A. Acute liver failure. Indian J Pediatr 2003;70:73–9.Google Scholar

Amon, JJ, Darling, N, Fiore, AE, et al. Factors associated with hepatitis A vaccination among children 24 to 35 months of age: United States, 2003. Pediatrics 2006;117:30–3.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccines and Immunizations. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2019. Available at: www.cdc.gov/vaccines [last accessed June 12, 2020].Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccine Recommendations of the Advisory Committee for Immunization Practices. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2019. Available at: www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/ACIP-list.htm [last accessed June 12, 2019].Google Scholar

Landry, P, Tremblay, S, Darioli, R, Genton, B. Inactivated hepatitis vaccine booster given 24 months after the primary doses. Vaccine 2000;19:399–402.Google Scholar

McMahon, BJ, Williams, J, Bulkow, L, et al. Immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in Alaska native children and native and non-native adults. J Infect Dis 1995;17:676–9.Google Scholar

Horng, YC, Chang, MH, Lee, CY, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in healthy children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:359–62.Google Scholar

Balcarek, KB, Bagley, MR, Pass, RF, Schiff, ER, Krause, DS. Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in preschool children. J Infect Dis 1995;171(Suppl1): S70–S72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ashur, Y, Adler, R, Rowe, M, Shouval, D. Comparison of immunogenicity of two hepatitis A vaccines – VAQTA and HAVRIX – in young adults. Vaccine 1999;17:2290–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Letson, GW, Shapiro, CN, Kuehn, D, et al. Effect of maternal antibody on immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in infants. J Pediatr 2004;144:327–32.Google Scholar

Das, A. An economic analysis of different strategies of immunization against hepatitis A virus in developed countries. Hepatology 1999;29:548–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Werzberger, A, Mensch, B, Kuter, B, et al. A controlled trial of a formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in healthy children. N Engl J Med 1992;327:453–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Innis, BL, Snithhan, R, Kunasol, P, et al. Protection against hepatitis A by an inactivated vaccine. JAMA 1994;271:1328–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gouvea, AF, De Moraes-pinto, MI, Ono, E, et al. Immunogenicity and tolerability of hepatitis A vaccine in HIV-infected children. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:544–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Siberry, GK, Coller, RJ, Henkle, E, et al. Antibody response to hepatitis A immunization among human immunodeficiency virus-infected children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27:465–8.Google Scholar

Weinberg, A, Gona, P, Nachman, SA, et al. Antibody-response to hepatitis A virus vaccine in HIV-infected children with evidence of immunologic reconstitution while receiving highly active retroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2006;193:302–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Arslan, M, Wiesner, RH, Poterucha, JJ, Zein, NN. Safety and efficacy of hepatitis A vaccination in liver transplantation recipients. Transplantation 2001;72:272–6.Google Scholar

Diana, A, Posfay-Barbe, KM, Belli, DC, Siegrist, CA. Vaccine-induced immunity in children after orthotopic liver transplantation: a 12-yr review of the Swiss national reference center. Pediatr Transplant 2007;11:31–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lee, SD, Chan, CY, Yu, MI, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in patients with chronic liver disease. J Med Virol 1997;52:215–18.Google Scholar

Keeffe, EB, Iwarson, S, McMahon, BJ, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in patients with chronic liver disease. Hepatology 1998;27:881–6.Google Scholar

Ferreira, CT, da Silviera, TR, Viera, SM, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of hepatitis A vaccine in children with chronic liver disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003;37:258–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

El-Karaksy, HM, El-Hawary, MI, El- koofy, NM, et al. Safety and efficacy of hepatitis A vaccine in children with chronic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:7337–40.Google Scholar

Majda-Stanislawska, E, Bednarek, M, Kuydowicz, J. Immunogenicity of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in children with chronic liver disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004;23:571–4.Google Scholar

Troisi, CL, Hollinger, FB, Krause, DS, et al. Immunization of seronegative infants with hepatitis A vaccine (HAVRIX®; SKB): a comparative study of two dosing schedules. Vaccine 1997;15:1613–17.Google Scholar

Piazza, M, Safary, A, Vegnente, A, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in infants: a candidate for inclusion in the childhood vaccination programme. Vaccine 1999;17:585–8.Google Scholar

Dagan, R, Amir, J, Mijalovsky, A, et al. Immunization against hepatitis A in the first year of life: priming despite the presence of maternal antibody. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000;19:1045–52.Google Scholar

Fiore, AE, Shapiro, CN, Sabin, K, et al. Hepatitis A vaccination of infants: effect of maternal antibody status on antibody persistence and response to a booster dose. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22:354–9.Google Scholar

Hammitt, LL, Bulkow, L, Hennessy, TW, et al. Persistence of antibody to hepatitis A virus 10 years after vaccination among children and adults. J Infect Dis 2008;198:1776–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Werzberger, A, Mensch, B, Nalin, DR, Kuter, BJ. Effectiveness of hepatitis A vaccine in a former frequently affected community: 9 years’ follow-up after the Monroe field trial of VAQTA. Vaccine 2002;20:1699–1701.Google Scholar

Chang, CY, Lee, SD, Yu, MI, et al. Long-term follow-up of hepatitis A vaccination in children. Vaccine 1999;17:369–72.Google Scholar

Van Damme, P, Banatvala, J, Fay, O, et al. Hepatitis A booster vaccination: is there a need? Lancet 2003;362:1065–71.Google Scholar

Van Herckk, K, Van Damme, P. Inactivated hepatitis A vaccine-induced antibodies: follow-up and estimates of long-term persistence. J Med Virol 2001;63:1–7.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006;55(RR-7):1–23.Google Scholar

Rosenthal, P. Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis A vaccination in children, adolescents, and adults. Hepatology 2003;37:44–51.Google Scholar

Ansari, IH, Nanda, SK, Durgapal, H, et al. Cloning sequencing, and expression of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) nonstructural open reading frame 1. J Med Virol 2000;60:275–83.Google Scholar

Krawczynski, K, Aggarwal, R, Kamili, S. Infections of the liver. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2000;14:1–18.Google Scholar

Worm, HC, van der Poel, WHM, Brandstatter, G. Hepatitis E: an overview. Microbes Infect 2002;4:657–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aggarwal, R, Krawczynski, K. Hepatitis E: an overview and recent advances in clinical and laboratory research. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2000;15:9–20.Google Scholar

Ahn, J-M, Kang, S-G, Lee, D-Y, et al. Identification of novel human hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolates and determination of the seroprevalence of HEV in Korea. J Clin Microbiol 2005;3042–8. Doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.7.3042-3048.2005Google Scholar

Tam, AW, Smith, MM, Guerra, ME, et al. Hepatitis E virus (HEV): molecular cloning and sequencing of the full-length viral genome. Virology 1991;185:120–31.Google Scholar

Reyes, GR, Purdy, MA, Kim, JP, et al. Isolation of a cDNA from the virus responsible for enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. Science 1990;247:1335–9.Google Scholar

Shrestha, SM, Srestha, S, Tsuda, F, et al. Genetic changes in hepatitis E virus of subtype 1a in patients with sporadic acute hepatitis E in Kathmandu, Nepal, from 1997 to 2002. J Gen Virol 2004;85:97–104.Google Scholar

Mansuy, JM, Peron, JM, Abravanel, F, et al. Hepatitis E in the south west of France in individuals who have never visited an endemic area. J Med Virol 2004;74:419–24.Google Scholar

Redlinger, T, O’Rourke, K, Nickey, L, Martinez, G. Elevated hepatitis A and E seroprevalence rates in a Texas/Mexico border community. Tex Med 1998;94:68–71.Google Scholar

Aggarwal, R, Naik, SR. Faecal excretion of hepatitis-E virus. Lancet 1992;340:787.Google Scholar

DeCock, KM, Bradley, DW, Sandford, NL, et al. Epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis in patients from Pakistan. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:227–30.Google Scholar

Ray, R, Aggarwal, R, Salunke, PN, et al. Hepatitis E virus genome in stools of hepatitis patients during large epidemic in North India. Lancet 1991;338:783–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Skidmore, SJ, Yarbough, PO, Gabor, KA, et al. Hepatitis E virus: the cause of waterborne hepatitis outbreak. J Med Virol 1992;37:58–60.Google Scholar

Ticehurst, J, Popkin, TJ, Bryan, JP, et al. Association of hepatitis E virus with an outbreak of hepatitis in Pakistan: serologic responses and pattern of virus excretion. J Med Virol 1992;36:84–92.Google Scholar

Chauhan, A, Dilawari, JB, Jameel, S, et al. Common etiological agent for epidemic and sporadic non-A non-B hepatitis. Lancet 1992;339:1509–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hau, CH, Hien, TT, Tien, NT, et al. Prevalence of enteric hepatitis A and E viruses in the Mekong delta region of Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998;60:277–80.Google Scholar

Goto, K, Ito, K, Sugiura, T, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection in Japanese children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2005;42:89–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Emerson, SU, Purcell, RH. Running like water: the omnipresence of hepatitis E. N Engl J Med 2004;351: 2367–8.Google Scholar

Bader, TF, Krawczynski, K, Polish, LB, et al. Hepatitis E in a US traveler to Mexico. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1659.Google Scholar

De Groen, PC. Hepatitis E in the United States: a case of “hog fever?” Mayo Clin Proc 1997;72:1197–8.Google Scholar

Goldsmith, R, Yarbough, PO, Reyes, GR, et al. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of acute sporadic hepatitis E in Egyptian children. Lancet 1992;339:328–32.Google Scholar

Hyams, KC, Purdy, MA, Kaur, M, et al. Acute sporadic hepatitis E in Sudanese children: analysis based on a new Western blot assay. J Infect Dis 1992;165:1001–5.Google Scholar

Daniel, HDJ, Warier, A, Abraham, P, Sridharan, G. Age-wise exposure rates to hepatitis E virus in a southern Indian patient population without liver disease. Am J Top Med Hyg 2004;71:675–8.Google Scholar

Khuroo, MS, Kamili, S, Yattoo, GN. Hepatitis E virus infection may be transmitted through blood transfusions in an endemic area. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;19:778–84.Google Scholar

Singh, S, Mohanty, A, Joshi, YK, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis E virus infection. Indian J Pediatr 2003;70:37–9, 597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Khuroo, MS, Kamili, S, Jameel, S. Vertical transmission of hepatitis E virus. Lancet 1995;345:1025–6.Google Scholar

Kumar, RM, Uduman, S, Rana, S, et al. Sero-prevalence and mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis E virus among pregnant women in the United Arab Emirates. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001;100:9–15.Google Scholar

Arora, NK, Panda, SK, Nanda, SK, et al. Hepatitis E infection in children: study of an outbreak. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1999;14:572–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Worm, HC, van der Poel, WHM, Brandstatter, G. Hepatitis E: an overview. Microbes Infect 2002;4:657–66.Google Scholar

Panda, SK, Jameel, S. Hepatitis E virus: from epidemiology to molecular biology. Viral Hepat 1997;3:227–51.Google Scholar

Kamar, N, Mansuy, JM, Cointault, O, et al. Hepatitis E virus-related cirrhosis in kidney- and kidney-pancreas-transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2008;8:1744–8.Google Scholar

Kamar, N, Garrouste, C, Haagsma, EB, et al. Factors associated with chronic hepatitis in patients with hepatitis E virus infection who have received solid organ transplants. Gastroenterology 2011;140:1481–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Legrand-Abravanel, F, Kamar, N, Sandres-Saune, K, et al. Hepatitis E virus infection without reactivation in solid-organ transplant recipients, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2011;17:30.Google Scholar

Hamid, SS, Atiq, M, Shehzad, F, et al. Hepatitis E virus superinfection in patients with chronic liver disease. Hepatology 2002;36:474–8.Google Scholar

Kumar, A, Aggarwal, R, Naik, SR, et al. Hepatitis E virus is responsible for decompensation of chronic liver disease in an endemic region. Indian J Gastroenterol 2004;23:59–62.Google Scholar

Ramachandran, J, Eapen, CE, Kang, G, et al. Hepatitis E superinfection produces severe decompensation in patients with chronic liver disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;19:134–8.Google Scholar

Davern, TJ, Chalasani, N, Fontana, RJ, et al. Acute hepatitis E infection accounts for some cases of suspected drug-induced liver injury. Gastroenterology 2011;14:1665–72.Google Scholar

Bryan, JP, Tsarev, SA, Iqbal, M, et al. Epidemic hepatitis E in Pakistan: patterns of serologic response and evidence that antibody to hepatitis E virus protects against disease. J Infect Dis 1994;170:517.Google Scholar

Bile, K, Isse, A, Mohamud, O, et al. Contrasting roles of rivers and wells as sources of drinking water on attack and fatality rates in a hepatitis E epidemic in Somalia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1994;51:466–74.Google Scholar

Corwin, AL, Khiem, HB, Clayson, ET, et al. A waterborne outbreak of hepatitis E virus transmission in southwestern Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996;54:559–62.Google Scholar

Khuroo, MS, Dar, MY. Hepatitis E: evidence for person-to-person transmission and inability of low dose immune serum globulin from an Indian source to prevent it. Indian J Gastroenterol 1992;3:113–16.Google Scholar

Tsarev, SA, Tsareva, TS, Emerson, SU, et al. Successful passive and active immunization of cynomolgus monkeys against hepatitis E. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:10198–202.Google Scholar

Tsarev, SA, Tsareva, TS, Emerson, SU, et al. Recombinant vaccine against hepatitis E: dose response and protection against heterologous challenge. Vaccine 1997;15:1834–8.Google Scholar

Kamili, S. Toward the development of a hepatitis E vaccine. Virus Res 2011;161:93–100.Google Scholar

Alric, L, Bonnet, D, Laurent, G, et al. Chronic hepatitis E virus infection: successful virologic response to pegylated interferon-alpha therapy. Ann Intern Med 2010;153:135–6.Google Scholar

Kamar, N, Rostaing, L, Abravanel, F, et al. Ribavirin therapy inhibits viral replication in patients with chronic hepatitis E virus infection. Gastroenterology 2010;139:1612–18.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral hepatitis surveillance, United States, 2016. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2016. Available at: www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2016surveillance/pdfs/2016HepSurveillanceRpt.pdf [last accessed June 12, 2020].Google Scholar

Ganem, D, Prince, AM. Hepatitis B virus infection natural history and clinical consequences. N Engl J Med 2004;350:1118–29.Google Scholar

World Health Organization Hepatitis B fact-sheets. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b [last accessed June 15, 2020].Google Scholar

Tiollais, P, Pourcel, C, Dejean, A. The hepatitis B virus. Nature 1985;317:489–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nassal, M. Hepatitis B viruses: reverse transcription a different way. Virus Research 2008;134:235–49.Google Scholar

Huang, HC, Chen, CC, Chang, WC, et al. Entry of hepatitis B virus into immortalized human primary hepatocytes by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. J Virol 2012;86(17):9443–53.Google Scholar

Murray, JM, Purcell, R, Wieland, SF. The half-life of hepatitis B virons. Hepatology 2006;44:1117–21.Google Scholar

Balistreri, WF. Viral hepatitis. Emerg Clin North Am 1991;9:365–99.Google Scholar

Hoofnagle, JH, DiBisceglie, AM. Serologic diagnosis of acute and chronic viral hepatitis. Semin Liver Dis 1991;11:73–83.Google Scholar

Andersson, KL, Raymond, T, Chung, RT. Monitoring during and after antiviral therapy for hepatitis B. Hepatology 2009;49:S166–S173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McQuillan, GM, Coleman, PJ, Kruszon-Moran, D, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1976 through 1994. Am J Public Health. 1999; 89:4–8.Google Scholar

Roberts, H, Kruszon-Moran, D, Ly, KN, et al. Prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in US households: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1988–2012. Hepatology 2016;63(2):388–97.Google Scholar

Kim, HS, Rotundo, L, Yang, JD, et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence and awareness of hepatitis B virus infection and immunity in the United States. J Viral Hepat 2017;24:1052–66.Google Scholar

World Health Organization Hepatitis B fact-sheets. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b [last accessed June 15, 2020].Google Scholar

Hsu, HY Chang, MH, Chen, DS, et al. Baseline seroepidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection in children in Taipei, 1984: a study just before mass hepatitis B vaccination program in Taiwan. J Med Virol 1986;18:301–7.Google Scholar

Lemoine, M, Thursz, MR. Battle field against hepatitis B infection and HCC in Africa. J Hepatol 2017;66:645–54.Google Scholar

Beasley, RP. Rocks along the road to the control of HBV and HCC. Ann Epidemiol 2009;19:231–4.Google Scholar

Hsu, HY, Chang, MH, Hsieh, KH, et al. Cellular immune response to hepatitis B core antigen in maternal infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Hepatology 1992;15:770–6.Google Scholar

Lee, SD, Lo, KJ, Tsai, YT, et al. Role of caesarean section in prevention of mother-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Lancet 1988;2:833–4.Google Scholar

Tang, JR, Hsu, HY, Lin, HH, et al. Hepatitis B surface antigenemia at birth: a long-term follow-up study. J Pediatr 1998;133:374–7.Google Scholar

Mavilia, MG, Wu, GY. Mechanisms and prevention of vertical transmission in chronic viral hepatitis. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2017;5:119–29.Google Scholar

Beasley, RP, Stevens, CE, Shiao, IS, et al. Evidence against breast-feeding as a mechanism for vertical transmission of hepatitis B. Lancet 1975;2:740–1.Google Scholar

Gartner, LM, Morton, J, Lawrence, RA, et al. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 2005;115:496–506.Google Scholar

Bhaduri, BR, Mieli-Vergani, G.. Fulminant hepatic failure: pediatric aspects. Semin Liver Dis 1996;16:349–55.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, Lee, CY, Chen, DS, et al. Fulminant hepatitis in children in Taiwan: the important role of hepatitis B virus. J Pediatr 1987;111:34–9.Google Scholar

Hsu, HY, Chang, MH, Lee, CY, et al. Pre-core mutant of hepatitis B virus in childhood fulminant hepatitis B: an infrequent association. J Infect Dis 1995;171:776–81.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, Hsu, HY, Hsu, HC, et al. The significance of spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in childhood: with special emphasis on the clearance of HBeAg before three years of age. Hepatology 1995;22:1387–92.Google Scholar

Chu, CM, Karayiannis, P, Fowler, MJ, et al. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in Taiwan: studies of hepatitis B virus DNA in serum. Hepatology 1985;5:431–4.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, Hwang, LY, Hsu, HC, et al. Prospective study of asymptomatic HBsAg carrier children infected in the perinatal period: clinical and liver histologic studies. Hepatology 1988;8:374–7.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Cadrobbi, M, Crivellaro, C, et al. Long-term outcome of chronic type B hepatitis in patients who acquire hepatitis B virus in infection in childhood. Gastroenterology 1990;99:805–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chang, MH, Sung, JL, Lee, CY, et al. Factors affecting the clearance of hepatitis B e antigen in hepatitis B surface antigen carrier children. J Pediatr 1989;115:385–90.Google Scholar

Wu, JF, Su, YR, Chen, CH, et al. Predictive effect of serial serum alanine aminotransferase levels on spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in chronic genotype B and C HBV-infected children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2012;54:97–100.Google Scholar

Ni, YH, Chang, MH, Chen, PJ, et al. Viremia profiles in children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection and spontaneous e antigen seroconversion. Gastroenterology 2007;132:2340–5.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Guido, M, Bartolacci, S, et al. Chronic hepatitis B in children after e antigen seroclearance: final report of a 29-year longitudinal study. Hepatology 2006;43:556–62.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Wirth, S, Crivellaro, C, et al. Long-term persistence of hepatitis B virus DNA in the serum of children with chronic hepatitis B after hepatitis B e antigen to antibody seroconversion. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1996;22:270–4.Google Scholar

Wu, JF, Chiu, YC, Chang, KC, et al. Predictors of hepatitis B e antigen-negative hepatitis in chronic hepatitis B infected patients from childhood to adulthood. Hepatology 2016;63:74–82.Google Scholar

Liaw, YF. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection and long-term outcome under treatment. Liver International 2009;29(S1):100–7.Google Scholar

Chiu, YC, Liao, SF, Wu, JF, et al. Factors affecting the natural decay of hepatitis B surface antigen in children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection during long-term follow-up. J Pediatr 2014;165:767–72.Google Scholar

Chu, CM, Liaw, YF. HBsAg seroclearance in asymptomatic carriers of high endemic areas: appreciably high rates during a long-term follow-up. Hepatology 2007;45:1187–92.Google Scholar

Hung, WL, Wu, JF, Ni, YH, et al. Occult hepatitis B virus and surface antigen mutant infection in healthy vaccinated cohorts and children with various forms of hepatitis and multiple transfusions. Liver Int 2019;39:1052–61.Google Scholar

Hsu, HC, Lin, YH, Chang, MH, et al. Pathology of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in children: with special reference to the intrahepatic expression of hepatitis B virus antigens. Hepatology 1988;8:378–82.Google Scholar

Tseng, YR, Wu, JF, Ni, YH, et al. Long-term effect of maternal HBeAg on delayed HBeAg seroconversion in offspring with chronic hepatitis B infection. Liver Int 2011;31:1373–80.Google Scholar

Wu, JF, Wu, TC, Chen, CH, et al. Serum levels of interleukin-12 predict early, spontaneous hepatitis B virus e antigen seroconversiston. Gastroenterology 2010;138:165–72.Google Scholar

Lin, CL, Kao, JH. The clinical implications of hepatitis B virus genotype: recent advances. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;26(Suppl. 1):123–30.Google Scholar

Ni, YH, Chang, MH, Wang, KJ, et al. Clinical relevance of hepatitis B virus genotype in children with chronic hepatitis B and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 2004;127:1733–8.Google Scholar

Chen, CJ, Yang, HI, Iloeje, UH; REVEAL-HBV Study Group Hepatitis B virus DNA levels and outcomes in chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2009;49(Suppl. 5):S72–84.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, Hsu, HY, Ni, YH, et al. Precore stop codon mutant in chronic hepatitis B virus infection in children: its relation to hepatitis B e seroconversion and natural hepatitis B surface antigen. J Hepatol 1998;28:915–22.Google Scholar

Ni, YH, Chang, MH, Hsu, HY, Tsuei, DJ. Longitudinal study on mutation profiles of core promoter and precore regions of the hepatitis B virus genome in children. Pediatr Res 2004;56:396–9.Google Scholar

Ni, YH, Chang, MH, Hsu, HY, Tsuei, DJ. Different hepatitis B virus core gene mutations in children with chronic infection versus hepatocellular carcinoma. Gut 2003; 52:122–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jonas, MM, Block, JM, Haber, BA, et al. Treatment of children with chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: patient selection and therapeutic options. Hepatology 2010;52:2192–205.Google Scholar

Terrault, NA, Lok, ASF, McMahon, BJ, et al. Update of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology 2018;67:1560–99.Google Scholar

Sokal, EM, Paganelli, M, Wirth, S, et al. Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood: ESPGHAN clinical practice guidelines: consensus of an expert panel on behalf of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Hepatol 2013;59:814–29.Google Scholar

Bisceglie, AM, Lok, AS, Martin, P, et al. Recent US Food and Drug Administration warnings on hepatitis B reactivation with immune-suppressing and anti-cancer drugs: just the tip of the iceberg? Hepatology 2015;61:703–11.Google Scholar

Torre, D, Tambini, R. Interferon-a therapy for chronic hepatitis B in children: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:131–7.Google Scholar

Sokal, EM, Conjeevaram, HS, Roberts, EA, et al. Interferon alfa therapy for chronic hepatitis B in children: a multinational randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology 1998;114:988–95.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Jara, P, Barbera, C, et al. Long term effect of alpha interferon in children with chronic hepatitis B. Gut 2000;46:715–18.Google Scholar

Hsu, HY, Tsai, HY, Wu, TC, et al. Interferon-alpha treatment in children and young adults with chronic hepatitis B: a long-term follow-up study in Taiwan. Liver Int 2008;28:1288–97.Google Scholar

Sokal, EM, Pagnelli, M, Wirth, S, et al. Management of chronic hepatitis B in childhood: ESPGHAN clinical practice guidelines. J Hepatol 2013;59:814–29.Google Scholar

Wirth, S, Zhang, H, Hardikar, W, et al. Efficacy and safety of peginterferon alfa-2a (40 KD) in children with chronic hepatitis B: the PEG-B-ACTIVE Study. Hepatology 2018;68:1681–94.Google Scholar

Jonas, M, Kelly, DA, Mizerski, J, et al. Clinical trial of lamivudine in children with chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1706–13.Google Scholar

Sokal, EM, Kelly, DA, Badia, IB, et al. Long-term lamivudine therapy for children with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2006;43:225–32.Google Scholar

European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol 2012;57:167–85.Google Scholar

Jonas, MM, Kelly, D, Pollack, H, Mizerski, J, Sorbel, J, Frederick, D, Mondou, E, Rousseau, F, Sokal, E. Safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of adefovir dipivoxil in children and adolescents (age 2 to <8 years) with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2008;47:1863–71.Google Scholar

Jonas, MM, Kelly, D, Pollack, H, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-term adfovir dipivoxil therapy in children with chronic hepatitis B infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:578–82.Google Scholar

Chang, TT, Gish, RG, de Man, R, et al. A comparison of entecavir and lamivudine for HBeAg-posiitve chronic hepatitis B.N Engl J Med 2006;354:1001–10.Google Scholar

Lai, CL, Shouval, D, Lok, AS, et al. Entecavir versus lamivudine for patients with HBeAg-negative chronic Hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1011–20.Google Scholar

Tenney, DJ, Rose, RE, Baldick, CJ, et al. Long-term monitoring shows hepatitis B virus resistance to entecavir in nucleoside-naïve patients is rare through 5 years of therapy. Hepatology 2009;49:1503–14.Google Scholar

Jonas, MM, Chang, MH, Sokal, E, et al. Randomized controlled trial of entecavir vs placebo in children with hepatitis B e antigen positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2016;63:377–89.Google Scholar

Lai, CL, Gane, E, Liaw, YF, et al. Telbivudine versus lamivudine in patients with chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2576–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Seto, WK, Lai, CL, Fung, J, Wong, DK, Yuen, JC, Hung, IF, Yuen, MF. Significance of HBV DNA levels at 12 weeks of telbivudine treatment and the 3 years treatment outcome. J Hepatol 2011;55:522–8.Google Scholar

Han, GR, Cao, MK, Zhao, W, et al. A prospective and open-label study for the efficacy and safety of telbivudine in pregnancy for prevention of perinatal transmission of hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol 2011;55:1215–21.Google Scholar

Marcellin, P, Heathcote, EJ, Buti, M, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus adefovir dipivoxil for chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2442–55.Google Scholar

Liu, Y, Corsa, AC, Buti, M, et al. No detectable resistance to tenofivir disoproxil fumarate in HBeAg+ and HBeAg- patients with chronic hepatitis B after 8 years of treatment. J Viral Hepat 2017;24:68–74.Google Scholar

Murray, KF, Szenborn, L, Wysocki, J, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in adolescents with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2012;56:2018–26.Google Scholar

D’Antiga, L, Aw, M, Atkins, M, et al. Combined lamivudine/interferon-alpha treatment in “immunotolerant” children perinatally infected with hepatitis B: a pilot study. J Pediatr 2006;148:228–33.Google Scholar

Zhu, S, Zhang, H, Dong, Y, et al. Antiviral therapy in hepatitis B virus-infected children with immune-tolerant characteristics: a pilot open-label randomized study. J Hepatol 2018;68:1123–8.Google Scholar

Rosenthal, P, Ling, SC, Belle, SH, et al. Combination of entecavir/peginterferon alfa-2a in children with HBeAg-positive immune tolerant chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 2019;69:2326–37.Google Scholar

Bertoletti, A, Bert, NL. Immunotherapy for chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Gut Liver 2018;12:497–507.Google Scholar

Boni, C, Vecchi, A, Rossi, M, et al. TLR7 agonist increases responses of hepatitis B virus-specific T cells and natural killer cells in patients with chronic hepatitis B treated with nucleos(t)ide analogues. Gastroenterology 2018;154:1764–77.Google Scholar

Ji, C, Sastry, KS, Tiefenthaler, G, et al. Targeted delivery of interferon-alpha to hepatitis B virus-infected cells using T-cell receptor-like antibodies. Hepatology 2012;56:2027–38.Google Scholar

Fisicaro, P, Valdatta, C, Massari, M, et al. Antiviral intrahepatic T-cell responses can be restored by blocking programmed death-1 pathway in chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 2010;138:682–93.Google Scholar

Serigado, JM, Izzy, M, Kalia, H. Novel therapies and potential therapeutic targets in the management of chronic hepatitis B. Europ J Gastro Hepatol 2017;29:987–93.Google Scholar

Chen, HL, Lin, LH, Hu, FC, et al. Effects of maternal screening and universal immunization to prevent mother-to-infant transmission of HBV. Gastroenterology 2012;142:773–81.Google Scholar

Chen, DS, Hsu, NH, Sung, JL, et al. A mass vaccination program in Taiwan against hepatitis B virus infection in infants of hepatitis B surface antigen-carrier mothers. JAMA 1987;257:2597–603.Google Scholar

MacGregor, A. WHO: World Health Assembly. Lancet 1992;339(8804):1287.Google Scholar

World Health Organization Hepatitis B fact-sheets. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b [last accessed June 15, 2020].Google Scholar

Sagnelli, E, Sagnelli, C, Pisaturo, M, et al. Epidemiology of acute and chronic hepatitis B and delta over the last 5 decades in Italy. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20(24):7635–43.Google Scholar

Schillie, S, Vellozzi, C, Reingold, A, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR 2018;67(1):1–31.Google Scholar

Ni, YH, Chang, MH, Jan, CF, et al. Continuing decrease in hepatitis B virus infection 30 years after initiation of infant vaccination program in Taiwan. Clin Gastro Hepatol 2016;14:1324–30.Google Scholar

Hsu, HY, Chang, MH, Ni, YH, et al. Universal infant immunization and occult hepatitis B virus infection in children and adolescents: a population-based study. Hepatology 2015;61:1183–91.Google Scholar

Peto, TJ, Mendy, ME, Lowe, Y, et al. Efficacy and effectiveness of infant vaccination against chronic hepatitis B in the Gambia Hepatitis Intervention Study (1986–90) and in the nationwide immunization program. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:7.Google Scholar

Chen, HL, Chang, CJ, Kong, MS, et al. Fulminant hepatitis failure in children in endemic areas of hepatitis B virus infection: 15 years after universal hepatitis B vaccination. Hepatology 2004;39:58–63.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, Chen, CJ, Lai, MS, et al. Universal hepatitis B vaccination in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in children. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1855–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chang, MH, You, SL, Chen, CJ, et al. Decreased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in hepatitis B vaccines: a 20-year follow-up study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009;101:1348–55.Google Scholar

Chang, MH, You, SL, Chen, CJ, et al. Long-term effect of hepatitis B vaccination of infants in preventing liver cancer. Gastroenterology 2016;151:472–80.Google Scholar

Su, WJ, Ho, MC, Ni, YH, et al. High-titer antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen before liver transplantation can prevent de novo hepatitis B infection. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:203–8.Google Scholar

Wen, WH, Chang, MH, Zhao, LL, et al. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus infection: significance of maternal viral load and strategies for investigation. J Hepatol 2013;59:24–30.Google Scholar

Chen, HL, Lee, CN, Chang, CH, et al. Efficacy of maternal tenofivir disoproxil fumarate in interrupting mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Hepatology 2015;62:375–86.Google Scholar

Pan, CQ, Duan, Z, Dai, E, et al. Tenofovir to prevent hepatitis B virus transmission in mothers with high viral load. N Eng J Med 2016;374:2324–34.Google Scholar

Hsu, HY, Chang, MH, Ni, YH, et al. Chronologic changes in serum hepatitis virus DNA, genotypes, surface antigen mutants and transcriptase mutants during 25-year nationwide immunization in Taiwan. J Viral Hepat 2017;24:645–53.Google Scholar

Thio, CL, Guo, N, Xie, C, et al. Global elimination of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B: revisiting the current strategies. Lancet Infect Dis 2015;15:981–5.Google Scholar

Feret, E, Larouze, B, Diop, B, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection in the rural community of Tip, Senegal. Am J Epidemiol. 1987;125:140–9.Google Scholar

Schweitzer, A, Horn, J, Mikolajczyk, RT, Krause, G, and Ott, JJ. Estimations of worldwide prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a systematic review of data published between 1965 and 2013. Lancet 2015;386:1546–55.Google Scholar

Mack, CL, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Gupta, N, Leung, D, Narkewicz, MR, Roberts, EA, Rosenthal, P, et al. NASPGHAN practice guidelines: diagnosis and management of hepatitis C infection in infants, children, and adolescents. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2012;54:838–55.Google Scholar

Bukh, J. The history of hepatitis C virus (HCV): basic research reveals unique features in phylogeny, evolution and the viral life cycle with new perspectives for epidemic control. J Hepatol 2016;65:S2–S21.Google Scholar

Bartlett, C, Curd, A, Peckham, M, Harris, M. Visualisation and analysis of hepatitis C virus non-structural proteins using super-resolution microscopy. Sci Rep 2018;8:13604.Google Scholar

Pileri, P, Uematsu, Y, Campagnoli, S, Galli, G, Falugi, F, Petracca, R, Weiner, AJ, et al. Binding of hepatitis C virus to CD81. Science 1998;282:938–41.Google Scholar

Urbanowicz, A, Zagozdzon, R, Ciszek, M. Modulation of the immune system in chronic hepatitis C and during antiviral interferon-free therapy. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2019;67(2):79–88.Google Scholar

Patra, T, Ray, RB, Ray, R. Strategies to circumvent host innate immune response by hepatitis C virus. Cells 2019;8(3):274.Google Scholar

Ciuffreda, D, Kim, AY. Update on hepatitis C virus-specific immunity. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2011;6:559–65.Google Scholar

Heim, MH. Innate immunity and HCV. J Hepatol 2013;58:564–74.Google Scholar

Dolganiuc, A, Chang, S, Kodys, K, Mandrekar, P, Bakis, G, Cormier, M, Szabo, G. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein-induced, monocyte-mediated mechanisms of reduced IFN-alpha and plasmacytoid dendritic cell loss in chronic HCV infection. J Immunol 2006;177:6758–68.Google Scholar

Shiina, M, Rehermann, B. Cell culture-produced hepatitis C virus impairs plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. Hepatology 2008;47:385–95.Google Scholar

Tseng, CT, Klimpel, GR. Binding of the hepatitis C virus envelope protein E2 to CD81 inhibits natural killer cell functions. J Exp Med 2002;195:43–9.Google Scholar

Ali, OS, Abo-Shadi, MA, Hammad, LN. The biological significance of serum complements C3 and C4 in HCV-related chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma. Egypt J Immunol 2005;12:91–9.Google Scholar

Dumestre-Perard, C, Ponard, D, Drouet, C, Leroy, V, Zarski, JP, Dutertre, N, Colomb, MG. Complement C4 monitoring in the follow-up of chronic hepatitis C treatment. Clin Exp Immunol 2002;127:131–6.Google Scholar

Mazumdar, B, Kim, H, Meyer, K, Bose, SK, Di Bisceglie, AM, Ray, RB, Diamond, MS, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection upregulates CD55 expression on the hepatocyte surface and promotes association with virus particles. J Virol 2013;87:7902–10.Google Scholar

Gower, E, Estes, C, Blach, S, Razavi-Shearer, K, Razavi, H. Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 2014;61:S45–57.Google Scholar

El-Shabrawi, MH, Kamal, NM. Burden of pediatric hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19:7880–8.Google Scholar

Delgado-Borrego, A, Smith, L, Jonas, MM, Hall, CA, Negre, B, Jordan, SH, Ogrodowicz, M, et al. Expected and actual case ascertainment and treatment rates for children infected with hepatitis C in Florida and the United States: epidemiologic evidence from statewide and nationwide surveys. J Pediatr 2012;161:915–21.Google Scholar

Raynes-Greenow, C, Polis, S, Elliott, E, Hardikar, W, Kesson, A, Kaldor, J, Jones, CA. Childhood hepatitis C virus infection: an Australian national surveillance study of incident cases over five years. J Paediatr Child Health 2015;51:1115–20.Google Scholar

Razavi, H, Elkhoury, AC, Elbasha, E, Estes, C, Pasini, K, Poynard, T, Kumar, R. Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease burden and cost in the United States. Hepatology 2013;57:2164–70.Google Scholar

Kuiken, C, Simmonds, P. Nomenclature and numbering of the hepatitis C virus. Methods Mol Biol 2009;510:33–53.Google Scholar

Liakina, V, Hamid, S, Tanaka, J, Olafsson, S, Sharara, AI, Alavian, SM, Gheorghe, L, et al. Historical epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in select countries – volume 3. J Viral Hepat 2015;22( Suppl 4):4–20.Google Scholar

Lowe, NJ, Rizk, D, Grimes, P, Billips, M, Pincus, S. Azelaic acid 20% cream in the treatment of facial hyperpigmentation in darker-skinned patients. Clin Ther 1998;20:945–59.Google Scholar

Schwarz, KB, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Murray, KF, Molleston, JP, Haber, BA, Jonas, MM, Rosenthal, P, et al. The combination of ribavirin and peginterferon is superior to peginterferon and placebo for children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 2011;140:450–8 e451.Google Scholar

Prevention CfDCa. Viral hepatitis statistics and surveillance. 2013.Google Scholar

Lalloum, F, Souied, EH, Bastuji-Garin, S, Puche, N, Querques, G, Glacet-Bernard, A, Coscas, G, et al. Intravitreal ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization complicating pathologic myopia. Retina 2010;30:399–406.Google Scholar

Benova, L, Mohamoud, YA, Calvert, C, Abu-Raddad, LJ. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:765–73.Google Scholar

Dal Molin, G, D’Agaro, P, Ansaldi, F, Ciana, G, Fertz, C, Alberico, S, Campello, C. Mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus: rate of infection and assessment of viral load and IgM anti-HCV as risk factors. J Med Virol 2002;67:137–42.Google Scholar

European Paediatric Hepatitis CVN. A significant sex–but not elective cesarean section–effect on mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus infection.J Infect Dis 2005;192:1872–9.Google Scholar

Mast, EE, Hwang, LY, Seto, DS, Nolte, FS, Nainan, OV, Wurtzel, H, Alter, MJ. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy. J Infect Dis 2005;192:1880–9.Google Scholar

Wen, JW, Haber, BA. Maternal-fetal transmission of hepatitis C infection: what is so special about babies? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014;58:278–82.Google Scholar

Garcia-Tejedor, A, Maiques-Montesinos, V, Diago-Almela, VJ, Pereda-Perez, A, Alberola-Cunat, V, Lopez-Hontangas, JL, Perales-Puchalt, A, et al. Risk factors for vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: a single center experience with 710 HCV-infected mothers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2015;194:173–7.Google Scholar

Conte, D, Fraquelli, M, Prati, D, Colucci, A, Minola, E. Prevalence and clinical course of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and rate of HCV vertical transmission in a cohort of 15,250 pregnant women. Hepatology 2000;31:751–5.Google Scholar

Resti, M, Azzari, C, Mannelli, F, Moriondo, M, Novembre, E, de Martino, M, Vierucci, A. Mother to child transmission of hepatitis C virus: prospective study of risk factors and timing of infection in children born to women seronegative for HIV-1. Tuscany Study Group on Hepatitis C Virus Infection. BMJ 1998;317:437–41.Google Scholar

Fauteux-Daniel, S, Larouche, A, Calderon, V, Boulais, J, Beland, C, Ransy, DG, Boucher, M, et al. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: variable transmission bottleneck and evidence of midgestation in utero infection. J Virol 2017;91(23):e01372–17.Google Scholar

Suryaprasad, AG, White, JZ, Xu, F, Eichler, BA, Hamilton, J, Patel, A, Hamdounia, SB, et al. Emerging epidemic of hepatitis C virus infections among young nonurban persons who inject drugs in the United States, 2006–2012. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59:1411–19.Google Scholar

Kuncio, DE, Newbern, EC, Johnson, CC, Viner, KM. Failure to test and identify perinatally infected children born to hepatitis C virus-infected women. Clin Infect Dis 2016;62:980–5.Google Scholar

Chappell, CA, Hillier, SL, Crowe, D, Meyn, LA, Bogen, DL, Krans, EE. Hepatitis C virus screening among children exposed during pregnancy. Pediatrics 2018;141(6):e20173273.Google Scholar

American College of Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 86: Viral hepatitis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:941–56.Google Scholar

Kanninen, TT, Dieterich, D, Asciutti, S. HCV vertical transmission in pregnancy: new horizons in the era of DAAs. Hepatology 2015;62:1656–8.Google Scholar

Selvapatt, N, Ward, T, Bailey, H, Bennett, H, Thorne, C, See, LM, Tudor-Williams, G, et al. Is antenatal screening for hepatitis C virus cost-effective? A decade’s experience at a London centre. J Hepatol 2015;63:797–804.Google Scholar

Tasillo, A, Eftekhari Yazdi, G, Nolen, S, Schillie, S, Vellozzi, C, Epstein, R, Randall, L, et al. Short-term effects and long-term cost-effectiveness of universal hepatitis C testing in prenatal care. Obstet Gynecol 2019;133:289–300.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis C virus infection among adolescents and young adults: Massachusetts, 2002–2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:537–41.Google Scholar

Zibbell, JE, Iqbal, K, Patel, RC, Suryaprasad, A, Sanders, KJ, Moore-Moravian, L, Serrecchia, J, et al. Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged <30 years – Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, 2006–2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2015;64:453–8.Google Scholar

Barritt, ASt, Lee, B, Runge, T, Schmidt, M, Jhaveri, R. Increasing prevalence of hepatitis C among hospitalized children is associated with an increase in substance abuse. J Pediatr 2018;192:159–64.Google Scholar

Abutaleb, A, Sherman, KE. A changing paradigm: management and treatment of the HCV/HIV-co-infected patient. Hepatol Int 2018;12:500–9.Google Scholar

Mallet, V, Vallet-Pichard, A, Pol, S. The impact of human immunodeficiency virus on viral hepatitis. Liver Int 2011;31(Suppl 1):135–9.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Bartolini, E, Serranti, D, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Hepatitis C in children co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2015;61:393–9.Google Scholar

Ciotti, M, D’Agostini, C, Marrone, A. Advances in the diagnosis and monitoring of hepatitis C virus infection. Gastroenterology Res 2013;6:161–70.Google Scholar

de Leuw, P, Sarrazin, C, Zeuzem, S. How to use virological tools for the optimal management of chronic hepatitis C. Liver Int 2011;31(Suppl 1):3–12.Google Scholar

Polywka, S, Pembrey, L, Tovo, PA, Newell, ML. Accuracy of HCV-RNA PCR tests for diagnosis or exclusion of vertically acquired HCV infection. J Med Virol 2006;78:305–10.Google Scholar

Easterbrook, PJ, Group WHOGD. Who to test and how to test for chronic hepatitis C infection – 2016 WHO testing guidance for low- and middle-income countries. J Hepatol 2016;65:S46–66.Google Scholar

Jonas, MM, Baron, MJ, Bresee, JS, Schneider, LC. Clinical and virologic features of hepatitis C virus infection associated with intravenous immunoglobulin. Pediatrics 1996;98:211–15.Google Scholar

Squires, RH Jr., Shneider, BL, Bucuvalas, J, Alonso, E, Sokol, RJ, Narkewicz, MR, Dhawan, A, et al. Acute liver failure in children: the first 348 patients in the Pediatric Acute Liver Failure Study Group. J Pediatr 2006;148:652–8.Google Scholar

El-Guindi, MA. Hepatitis C viral infection in children: updated review. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr 2016;19:83–95.Google Scholar

Santantonio, T, Sinisi, E, Guastadisegni, A, Casalino, C, Mazzola, M, Gentile, A, Leandro, G, et al. Natural course of acute hepatitis C: a long-term prospective study. Dig Liver Dis 2003;35:104–13.Google Scholar

Santantonio, T, Wiegand, J, Gerlach, JT. Acute hepatitis C: current status and remaining challenges. J Hepatol 2008;49:625–33.Google Scholar

Narkewicz, MR, Horslen, S, Hardison, RM, Shneider, BL, Rodriguez-Baez, N, Alonso, EM, Ng, VL, et al. A learning collaborative approach increases specificity of diagnosis of acute liver failure in pediatric patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;16:1801–10 e1803.Google Scholar

Davison, SM, Mieli-Vergani, G, Sira, J, Kelly, DA. Perinatal hepatitis C virus infection: diagnosis and management. Arch Dis Child 2006;91:781–5.Google Scholar

Mohan, N, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Fujisawa, T, Chang, MH, Heller, S, Jara, P, Kelly, D, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010;50:123–31.Google Scholar

European Paediatric Hepatitis CVN. Three broad modalities in the natural history of vertically acquired hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:45–51.Google Scholar

Goodman, ZD, Makhlouf, HR, Liu, L, Balistreri, W, Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Haber, B, Jonas, MM, et al. Pathology of chronic hepatitis C in children: liver biopsy findings in the Peds-C Trial. Hepatology 2008;47:836–43.Google Scholar

Turkova, A, Volynets, GV, Crichton, S, Skvortsova, TA, Panfilova, VN, Rogozina, NV, Khavkin, AI, et al. Advanced liver disease in Russian children and adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. J Viral Hepat 2019;26(7):881–92.Google Scholar

Mizuochi, T, Takano, T, Yanagi, T, Ushijima, K, Suzuki, M, Miyoshi, Y, Ito, Y, et al. Epidemiologic features of 348 children with hepatitis C virus infection over a 30-year period: a nationwide survey in Japan. J Gastroenterol 2018;53:419–26.Google Scholar

Squires, JE, Balistreri, WF. Hepatitis C virus infection in children and adolescents. Hepatol Commun 2017;1:87–98.Google Scholar

Bunchorntavakul, C, Jones, LM, Kikuchi, M, Valiga, ME, Kaplan, DE, Nunes, FA, Aytaman, A, et al. Distinct features in natural history and outcomes of acute hepatitis C. J Clin Gastroenterol 2015;49:e31–40.Google Scholar

Yeung, LT, To, T, King, SM, Roberts, EA. Spontaneous clearance of childhood hepatitis C virus infection. J Viral Hepat 2007;14:797–805.Google Scholar

Loomba, R, Rivera, MM, McBurney, R, Park, Y, Haynes-Williams, V, Rehermann, B, Alter, HJ, et al. The natural history of acute hepatitis C: clinical presentation, laboratory findings and treatment outcomes. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;33:559–65.Google Scholar

Maheshwari, A, Ray, S, Thuluvath, PJ. Acute hepatitis C. Lancet 2008;372:321–32.Google Scholar

Resti, M, Bortolotti, F, Vajro, P, Maggiore, G. The Committee of Hepatology of the Italian Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology. Guidelines for the screening and follow-up of infants born to anti-HCV positive mothers. Dig Liver Dis 2003;35:453–7.Google Scholar

Thomas, DL, Astemborski, J, Rai, RM, Anania, FA, Schaeffer, M, Galai, N, Nolt, K, et al. The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors. JAMA 2000;284:450–6.Google Scholar

Villano, SA, Vlahov, D, Nelson, KE, Cohn, S, Thomas, DL. Persistence of viremia and the importance of long-term follow-up after acute hepatitis C infection. Hepatology 1999;29:908–14.Google Scholar

Wang, CC, Krantz, E, Klarquist, J, Krows, M, McBride, L, Scott, EP, Shaw-Stiffel, T, et al. Acute hepatitis C in a contemporary US cohort: modes of acquisition and factors influencing viral clearance. J Infect Dis 2007;196:1474–82.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Bartolini, E, Moriondo, M, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Hepatitis C viraemia after apparent spontaneous clearance in a vertically infected child. Lancet 2016;387:1967–8.Google Scholar

Iorio, R, Giannattasio, A, Sepe, A, Terracciano, LM, Vecchione, R, Vegnente, A. Chronic hepatitis C in childhood: an 18-year experience. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1431–7.Google Scholar

Sheiko, MA, Golden-Mason, L, Giugliano, S, Hurtado, CW, Mack, CL, Narkewicz, MR, Rosen, HR. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell activation in children with hepatitis C. J Pediatr 2016;170:142–8 e141.Google Scholar

Garazzino, S, Calitri, C, Versace, A, Alfarano, A, Scolfaro, C, Bertaina, C, Vatrano, S, et al. Natural history of vertically acquired HCV infection and associated autoimmune phenomena. Eur J Pediatr 2014;173:1025–31.Google Scholar

Tovo, PA, Calitri, C, Scolfaro, C, Gabiano, C, Garazzino, S. Vertically acquired hepatitis C virus infection: correlates of transmission and disease progression. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:1382–92.Google Scholar

Arafa, N, El Hoseiny, M, Rekacewicz, C, Bakr, I, El-Kafrawy, S, El Daly, M, Aoun, S, et al. Changing pattern of hepatitis C virus spread in rural areas of Egypt. J Hepatol 2005;43:418–24.Google Scholar

Farmand, S, Wirth, S, Loffler, H, Woltering, T, Kenzel, S, Lainka, E, Henneke, P. Spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus in vertically infected children. Eur J Pediatr 2012;171:253–8.Google Scholar

Serra, MA, Escudero, A, Rodriguez, F, del Olmo, JA, Rodrigo, JM. Effect of hepatitis C virus infection and abstinence from alcohol on survival in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;36:170–4.Google Scholar

Pearlman, BL, Traub, N. Sustained virologic response to antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a cure and so much more. Clin Infect Dis 2011;52:889–900.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Bartolini, E, Nebbia, G, Calvo, PL, Moriondo, M, Tovo, PA, et al. Comparative analysis of rs12979860 SNP of the IFNL3 gene in children with hepatitis C and ethnic matched controls using 1000 Genomes Project data. PLoS One 2014;9:e85899.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Mangone, G, Calvo, PL, Bartolini, E, Regoli, M, Serranti, D, Calitri, C, et al. Interleukin 28B rs12979860 single-nucleotide polymorphism predicts spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014;58:666–8.Google Scholar

Ruiz-Extremera, A, Pavon-Castillero, EJ, Florido, M, Munoz de Rueda, P, Munoz-Gamez, JA, Casado, J, Carazo, A, et al. Influence of HLA class I, HLA class II and KIRs on vertical transmission and chronicity of hepatitis C virus in children. PLoS One 2017;12:e0172527.Google Scholar

Nafady, A, Nafady-Hego, H, Abdelwahab, NM, Eltellawy, RHN, Abu Faddan, NH. Peripheral lymphocytes analyses in children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Eur J Clin Invest 2018;48:e13004.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Verucchi, G, Camma, C, Cabibbo, G, Zancan, L, Indolfi, G, Giacchino, R, et al. Long-term course of chronic hepatitis C in children: from viral clearance to end-stage liver disease. Gastroenterology 2008;134:1900–7.Google Scholar

Jonas, MM. Children with hepatitis C. Hepatology 2002;36:S173–8.Google Scholar

Lee, CK, Jonas, MM. Hepatitis C: issues in children. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2015;44:901–9.Google Scholar

Zein, NN. Hepatitis C in children: recent advances. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007;19:570–4.Google Scholar

Casiraghi, MA, De Paschale, M, Romano, L, Biffi, R, Assi, A, Binelli, G, Zanetti, AR. Long-term outcome (35 years) of hepatitis C after acquisition of infection through mini transfusions of blood given at birth. Hepatology 2004;39:90–6.Google Scholar

Modin, L, Arshad, A, Wilkes, B, Benselin, J, Lloyd, C, Irving, WL, Kelly, DA. Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis C virus infection among children and young people. J Hepatol 2019;70:371–8.Google Scholar

Birnbaum, AH, Shneider, BL, Moy, L. Hepatitis C in children. N Engl J Med 2000;342:290–1.Google Scholar

Guido, M, Bortolotti, F, Leandro, G, Jara, P, Hierro, L, Larrauri, J, Barbera, C, et al. Fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C acquired in infancy: is it only a matter of time? Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:660–3.Google Scholar

Matsuoka, S, Tatara, K, Hayabuchi, Y, Taguchi, Y, Mori, K, Honda, H, Itou, S, et al. Serologic, virologic, and histologic characteristics of chronic phase hepatitis C virus disease in children infected by transfusion. Pediatrics 1994;94:919–22.Google Scholar

Minola, E, Prati, D, Suter, F, Maggiolo, F, Caprioli, F, Sonzogni, A, Fraquelli, M, et al. Age at infection affects the long-term outcome of transfusion-associated chronic hepatitis C. Blood 2002;99:4588–91.Google Scholar

Stallings-Smith, S, Krull, KR, Brinkman, TM, Hudson, MM, Ojha, RP. Long-term follow-up for incident cirrhosis among pediatric cancer survivors with hepatitis C virus infection. J Clin Virol 2015;71:18–21.Google Scholar

Maasoumy, B, Wiegand, SB, Jaroszewicz, J, Bremer, B, Lehmann, P, Deterding, K, Taranta, A, et al. Hepatitis B core-related antigen (HBcrAg) levels in the natural history of hepatitis B virus infection in a large European cohort predominantly infected with genotypes A and D. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015;21:606 e601–610.Google Scholar

Cesaro, S, Bortolotti, F, Petris, MG, Brugiolo, A, Guido, M, Carli, M. An updated follow-up of chronic hepatitis C after three decades of observation in pediatric patients cured of malignancy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2010;55:108–12.Google Scholar

Dyal, HK, Aguilar, M, Bhuket, T, Liu, B, Holt, EW, Torres, S, Cheung, R, et al. Concurrent obesity, diabetes, and steatosis increase risk of advanced fibrosis among HCV patients: a systematic review. Dig Dis Sci 2015;60:2813–24.Google Scholar

Beech, BM, Myers, L, Beech, DJ. Hepatitis B and C infections among homeless adolescents. Fam Community Health 2002;25:28–36.Google Scholar

Murray, KF, Richardson, LP, Morishima, C, Owens, JW, Gretch, DR. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection and risk factors in an incarcerated juvenile population: a pilot study. Pediatrics 2003;111:153–7.Google Scholar

Page, K, Hahn, JA, Evans, J, Shiboski, S, Lum, P, Delwart, E, Tobler, L, et al. Acute hepatitis C virus infection in young adult injection drug users: a prospective study of incident infection, resolution, and reinfection. J Infect Dis 2009;200:1216–26.Google Scholar

Wise, M, Finelli, L, Sorvillo, F. Prognostic factors associated with hepatitis C disease: a case-control study utilizing U.S. multiple-cause-of-death data. Public Health Rep 2010;125:414–22.Google Scholar

Anon. Hepatitis C: global ambition, national realities. Lancet 2016;387:1970.Google Scholar

Gonzalez-Peralta, RP, Langham, MR Jr., Andres, JM, Mohan, P, Colombani, PM, Alford, MK, Schwarz, KB. Hepatocellular carcinoma in 2 young adolescents with chronic hepatitis C. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:630–5.Google Scholar

Jara, P, Resti, M, Hierro, L, Giacchino, R, Barbera, C, Zancan, L, Crivellaro, C, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection in childhood: clinical patterns and evolution in 224 white children. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:275–80.Google Scholar

Rumbo, C, Fawaz, RL, Emre, SH, Suchy, FJ, Kerkar, N, Morotti, RA, Shneider, BL. Hepatitis C in children: a quaternary referral center perspective. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;43:209–16.Google Scholar

Badizadegan, K, Jonas, MM, Ott, MJ, Nelson, SP, Perez-Atayde, AR. Histopathology of the liver in children with chronic hepatitis C viral infection. Hepatology 1998;28:1416–23.Google Scholar

Cacoub, P, Buggisch, P, Carrion, JA, Cooke, GS, Zignego, AL, Beckerman, R, Younossi, Z. Direct medical costs associated with the extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C infection in Europe. J Viral Hepat 2018;25:811–17.Google Scholar

Younossi, Z, Park, H, Henry, L, Adeyemi, A, Stepanova, M. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C: a meta-analysis of prevalence, quality of life, and economic burden. Gastroenterology 2016;150:1599–1608.Google Scholar

Zignego, AL, Ferri, C, Pileri, SA, Caini, P, Bianchi, FB. Italian Association of the Study of Liver Commission on Extrahepatic Manifestations of HCVi. Extrahepatic manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection: a general overview and guidelines for a clinical approach. Dig Liver Dis 2007;39:2–17.Google Scholar

Matsumoto, S, Nakajima, S, Nakamura, K, Etani, Y, Hirai, H, Shimizu, N, Yokoyama, H, et al. Interferon treatment on glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus. Pediatr Nephrol 2000;15:271–3.Google Scholar

Romas, E, Power, DA, Machet, D, Powell, H, d’Apice, AJ. Membranous glomerulonephritis associated with hepatitis C virus infection in an adolescent. Pathology 1994;26:399–402.Google Scholar

Sugiura, T, Yamada, T, Kimpara, Y, Fujita, N, Goto, K, Koyama, N. Effects of pegylated interferon alpha-2a on hepatitis-C-virus-associated glomerulonephritis. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:199–202.Google Scholar

Gehring, S, Kullmer, U, Koeppelmann, S, Gerner, P, Wintermeyer, P, Wirth, S. Prevalence of autoantibodies and the risk of autoimmune thyroid disease in children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection treated with interferon-alpha. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:5787–92.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Bartolini, E, Olivito, B, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Autoimmunity and extrahepatic manifestations in treatment-naive children with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Dev Immunol 2012;2012:785627.Google Scholar

Indolfi, G, Stagi, S, Bartolini, E, Salti, R, de Martino, M, Azzari, C, Resti, M. Thyroid function and anti-thyroid autoantibodies in untreated children with vertically acquired chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008;68:117–21.Google Scholar

Bortolotti, F, Vajro, P, Balli, F, Giacchino, R, Crivellaro, C, Barbera, C, Cataleta, M, et al. Non-organ specific autoantibodies in children with chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol 1996;25:614–20.Google Scholar

Gregorio, GV, Pensati, P, Iorio, R, Vegnente, A, Mieli-Vergani, G, Vergani, D. Autoantibody prevalence in children with liver disease due to chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Clin Exp Immunol 1998;112:471–6.Google Scholar

Muratori, P, Muratori, L, Verucchi, G, Attard, L, Bianchi, FB, Lenzi, M. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies in children with chronic hepatitis C: clinical significance and impact on interferon treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1320–6.Google Scholar

Bogdanos, DP, Mieli-Vergani, G, Vergani, D. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies in hepatitis C virus infection: do they matter? Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:508–10.Google Scholar

Delgado-Borrego, A, Jordan, SH, Negre, B, Healey, D, Lin, W, Kamegaya, Y, Christofi, M, et al. Reduction of insulin resistance with effective clearance of hepatitis C infection: results from the HALT-C trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:458–62.Google Scholar

Akhter, A, Said, A. Cutaneous manifestations of viral hepatitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2015;17:452.Google Scholar

Nydegger, A, Srivastava, A, Wake, M, Smith, AL, Hardikar, W. Health-related quality of life in children with hepatitis C acquired in the first year of life. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;23:226–30.Google Scholar

Rodrigue, JR, Balistreri, W, Haber, B, Jonas, MM, Mohan, P, Molleston, JP, Murray, KF, et al. Impact of hepatitis C virus infection on children and their caregivers: quality of life, cognitive, and emotional outcomes. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:341–7.Google Scholar