Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2024-05-29T06:13:24.827Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Technical review of the energy and protein requirements of growing pigs: energy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 August 2016

C. T. Whittemore ,
P. W. Knap  and
D. M. Green
C. T. Whittemore*
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh, Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
P. W. Knap
Affiliation:
PIC International Group, PO Box 1630, D-24826, Schleswig, Germany
D. M. Green
Affiliation:
University of Edinburgh, Agriculture Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
*
†E-mailc.t.whittemore@ed.ac.uk
Get access

Abstract

A review of work reported in the literature was used to present quantitative descriptions of energy dispositioning in the growing pig. These are detailed in the text, which points to preferred values, as well as to anomalies and lacunae. The review was prepared with the objective of allowing from its content the inclusive and quantitative modelling of energy requirement. Requirement is approached as the sum of the component factors; maintenance, protein retention and lipid retention. Conventional expressions of maintenance requirement, as some function of pig mass, were found unconvincing in their variety of expression of coefficients and exponents. The review concluded that maintenance is properly related to protein turn-over, and thereby requires at least to include elements of concomitant protein metabolic activity. It was also judged that maintenance costs might be farm-specific. The energy requirements for activity, gaseous losses and disease were identified as important, but unsatisfactory in their quantification. Exploration of the energy costs of uncomfortable ambient temperatures suggested that whilst the responses of the pig are open to sophisticated and relatively exact calculation, the description of comfort remained inexact. The efficiency of retention of lipid by direct incorporation was high and may comprise a substantial proportion of the dietary lipid supply. There was little evidence of variation in the efficiency of utilization of metabolizable energy from carbohydrate for lipid retention. The linear-plateau paradigm for protein retention was adopted. The efficiency of utilization of energy for protein retention measured by a variety of approaches was found to be highly variable, prone to error and the literature confused. It was concluded that the efficiency of use of metabolizable energy for protein retention would be a function of at least: (a) the absorbed substrate being metabolized for the synthesis of body protein, (b) the rate of total protein tissue turn-over associated with the retention of newly accreted protein and not already accounted in the estimate of maintenance, (c) the mass of protein tissue involved in turn-over, and (d) the degree of maturity attained, and any influence maturity may have upon the rate of turn-over of total body protein. Algorithms for energy requirement are presented based upon protein turn-over and these appear to have some consistency with empirical findings.

Keywords

energynutrient requirementspigs
Type
Invited paper
Information
Animal Science , Volume 73 , Issue 2 , October 2001 , pp. 199 - 215
Copyright
Copyright © British Society of Animal Science 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agricultural Research Council. 1981. The nutrient requirements of pigs. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.Google Scholar
Arman, P. 1971. The effect of disease on nitrogen excretion in the hartebeest. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 30: 65A.Google Scholar
Armstrong, D. G. 1969. Cell bioenergetics and energy metabolism. In Handbuch de Tierernahrung (ed. Lenkeit, W., Breiremm, K., and Craseman, E.), pp. 385–414. Verlag P. Parey, Hamburg.Google Scholar
Bakker, G. C. M. 1996. Interaction between carbohydrates and fat in pigs: impact on energy evaluation of feeds. Ph.D. thesis, University of Wageningen.Google Scholar
Black, J. L., Bray, H. J. and Giles, L. R. 1999. The thermal and infectious environment. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 71–79. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Black, J. L., Campbell, R. G., Williams, I. H., James, K. J. and Davies, G. T. 1986. Simulation of energy and amino acid utilisation in the pig. Research and Development in Agriculture 3: 121–146.Google Scholar
Black, J. L. and Lange, C. F. M. de. 1995. Introduction to the principles of nutrient partitioning for growth. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 33–45. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Blaxter, K. L. and Boyne, A. W. 1978. The estimation of the nutritive value of feeds as energy sources for ruminants and the derivation of feeding systems. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 90: 47–68.Google Scholar
Bray, H. J., Giles, L. R., Walker, K. H., J. M., Gooden and Black, J. L. 1993. The effect of lung damage due to pleuropneumonia challenge on energy expenditure of growing pigs. In Manipulating pig production IV (ed. Batterham, E. S.), p. 259. Australasian Pig Science Association, Attwood, Victoria.Google Scholar
Bruce, J. M. and Clark, J. J. 1979. Models of heat production and critical temperature for growing pigs. Animal Production 28: 353–369.Google Scholar
Buttery, P. J. and D’Mello, J. P. F. 1994. Amino acid metabolism in farm animals. In Amino acids in farm animal nutrition (ed. D’Mello, J. F. P.), pp. 1–10. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Close, W. H. 1987. The influence of the thermal environment on the productivity of pigs. In Pig housing and the environment (ed. Smith, A. T. and Lawrence, T.L. J.), British Society of Animal Production occasional publication no. 11, pp. 9–24.Google Scholar
Danfaer, A. 2000. A pig model for feed evaluation. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. McNamara, J. P., France, J. and Beever, D. E.), pp. 393–408. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmans, G. C. 1994. Effective energy: a concept of energy utilisation applied across species. British Journal of Nutrition 71: 801–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmans, G. C. 1999. Energy flows. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 363–377. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Emmans, G. C. and Kyriazakis, I. 1999. Growth and body composition. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 181–198. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Es, A. J. H. van. 1980. Energy costs of protein deposition. In Protein deposition in animals (ed. Buttery, P. J. and Lindsay, D. B.), pp. 215–224. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Fowler, V. R. 1979. Energy requirements of the growing pig. In Recent advances in animal nutrition 1980 (ed. Haresign, W.), pp. 73–82. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Frape, D. L. 1986. Equine nutrition and feeding. Longman, London.Google Scholar
Fuller, M. F. 1980. Protein and amino acid nutrition of the pig. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 39: 193–203.Google Scholar
Graham, N. McC., Searle, T. W. and Griffiths, D. A. 1974. Basal metabolic rate in lambs and young sheep. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 25: 957–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jean dit Bailleul, P., Bernier, J. F., Milgen, J. van, Sauvant, D. and Pomar, C. 2000. The utilisation of prediction models to optimise farm animal production systems: the case of a growing pig model. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. McNamara, J. P., France, J. and Beever, D. E.), pp. 379–392. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Johnson, H. A., Baldwin, R. L. and Calvert, C. C. 2000. A rodent model of protein turnover to determine protein synthesis, amino acid channelling and recycling rates in tissues. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. McNamara, J. P., France, J. and Beever, D. E.), pp. 303–315. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorgensen, J., Zhao, X. Q. and Eggum, B. 1996. The influence of dietary fibre and environmental temperature on the development of the gastrointestinal tract, digestibility, degree of fermentation in the hind gut and energy metabolism in pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 75: 365–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kielanowski, J. 1965. Estimates of the energy cost of protein deposition in growing animals. In Proceedings of the third symposium on energy metabolism (ed. Blaxter, K. L.), European Association of Animal Production publication no. 11, pp. 13–20.Google Scholar
Kielanowski, J. 1972. Energy requirements of the growing pig. In Pig production (ed. Cole, D.J. A.), p. 183. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Knap, P. W. 1995. Aspects of stochasticity: variation between animals. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 165–172. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Knap, P. W. 1996. Stochastic simulation of growth in pigs: protein turn-over-dependent relations between body composition and maintenance requirements. Animal Science 63: 549–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knap, P. W. 2000. Variation in maintenance requirements of growing pigs in relation to body composition. A simulation study. Ph.D. thesis, University of Wageningen.Google Scholar
Knap, P. W. and Schrama, J. W. 1996. Simulation of growth in pigs: approximation of protein turn-over parameters. Animal Science 63: 533–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koong, L. J., Nienaber, J. A. and Mersmann, H. J. 1983. Effects of plane of nutrition on organ size and fasting heat production in genetically obese and lean pigs. Journal of Nutrition 113: 1626–1631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lizardo, R., Milgen, J. van, Mourot, J., Noblet, J. and Bonneau, M. 2000. Modelling fatty acid composition of adipose tissue in the growing-finishing pig. Proceedings of the 51st meeting of European Association for Animal Producion, The Hague (ed. van Arendonk, J. A. M.), p. 345.Google Scholar
Luiting, P. 1999. The role of genetic variation in feed intake and its physiological aspects: results from selection experiments. In Regulation of feed intake (ed. Heide, D. van der, Huisman, E. A., Kanis, E. and Osse, J.W. M.), pp. 75–88. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Milgen, J. van, Bernier, J. F., Lecozler, Y., Dubois, S. and Noblet, J. 1998. Major determinants of fasting heat production and energetic cost of activity in growing pigs of different body weight and breed/castration combination. British Journal of Nutrition 79: 509–517.Google Scholar
Milgen, J. van and Noblet, J. 1999. Energy partitioning in growing pigs: the use of a multivariate model as an alternative for the factorial analysis. Journal of Animal Science 77: 2154–2162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milgen, J. van and Noblet, J. 2000. Modelling energy expenditure in pigs. In Modelling nutrient utilisation in farm animals (ed. McNamara, J. P., France, J. and Beever, D. E.), pp. 103–114. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milgen, J. van, Quiniou, N. and Noblet, J. 2000. Modelling the relation between energy intake and protein and lipid deposition in growing pigs. Animal Science 71: 119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milligan, L. P. and Summers, M. 1986. The biological basis of maintenance and its relevance to assessing responses to nutrients. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 45: 185–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millward, D. J., Nnanyelugo, D. O. and Garlick, P. J. 1974. Developmental changes in muscle protein metabolism in congenitally malnourished rats. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 33: 55A.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J. 1989. Simulation of the daily partitioning of lysine in the 50 kg liveweight pig — a factorial approach to estimating amino acid requirements for growth and maintenance. Research and Development in Agriculture 6: 7–14.Google Scholar
Moughan, P. J., Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I. 1995. Modelling growth in the pig. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
National Research Council. 1998. Nutrient requirements of swine, 10th edition. National Academy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington DC.Google Scholar
Noblet, J., Fortune, H., Shi, X. S. and Dubois, S. 1994a. Prediction of net energy value of feeds for growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 72: 344–354.Google Scholar
Noblet, J. and Henry, Y. 1991. Energy evaluation systems for pig diets. In Manipulating pig production 3 (ed. Batterham, E. S.), Proceedings of the third biennial conference of the Australian Pig Science Association, Attwood, Victoria, pp. 87–110.Google Scholar
Noblet, J., Karege, C., Dubois, S. and Milgen, J. van. 1999. Metabolic utilization of energy and maintenance requirements in growing pigs: effects of sex and genotype. Journal of Animal Science 77: 1208–1216.Google Scholar
Noblet, J., Le Dividich, J. and Bikawa, T. 1985. Interaction between energy level in the diet and environmental temperature on the utilization of energy in growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 61: 452–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noblet, J., Shi, X. S. and Dubois, S. 1993a. Metabolic utilization of dietary energy and nutrients for maintenance energy requirements in sows: basis for a net energy system. British Journal of Nutrition 70: 407–419.Google Scholar
Noblet, J., Shi, X. S. and Dubois, S. 1993b. Energy cost of standing activity in sows. Livestock Production Science 34: 127–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noblet, J., Shi, X. S. and Dubois, S. 1994b. Effect of body weight on net energy value of feeds for growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science 72: 648–657.Google Scholar
Noblet, J., Shi, X. S., Fortune, H., Dubois, S., Lechevestrier, Y., Corniaux, C., Sauvant, D. and Henry, Y. 1994c. Teneur en energie nette des aliments chez le porc. Journées de la Recherche Porcine en France 26: 235–250.Google Scholar
Quiniou, N., Dourmad, J.-Y. and Noblet, J. 1996. Effect of energy intake on the performance of different types of pig from 45 to 100 kg body weight. 1. Protein and lipid deposition. Animal Science 63: 277–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quiniou, N., Noblet, J., Dourmad, J.-Y. and Milgen, J. van. 1999. Influence of energy supply on growth characteristics in pigs and consequences for growth modelling. Livestock Production Science 60: 317–328.Google Scholar
Rao, D. S. and McCracken, K. J. 1991. Effect of energy intake on protein and energy metabolism of boars of high genetic potential for lean growth. Animal Production 52: 499–507.Google Scholar
Rao, D. S. and McCracken, K. J. 1992. Energy: protein interactions in growing boars of high genetic potential for lean growth. 1. Effects on growth, carcass characteristics and organ weights. Animal Production 54: 75–82.Google Scholar
Reeds, P. J., Cadenhead, A., Fuller, M. F., Lobley, G. E. and McDonald, J. D. 1980. Protein turnover in growing pigs. Effects of age and food intake. British Journal of Nutrition 43: 445–455.Google Scholar
Riis, P. M. 1983. The pools of tissue constituents and products: proteins. In World animal science. A3. Dynamic biochemistry of animal production (ed. Riis, P. M.), pp. 75–108. Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Schinckel, A. P. 1999. Describing the pig. In A quantitative biology of the pig (ed. Kyriazakis, I.), pp. 9–38. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.Google Scholar
Stranks, M. H., Cooke, B. C., Fairburn, C. B., Fowler, N. G., Kirby, P. S., McCracken, K. J., Morgan, C. A., Palmer, F. G. and Peers, D. G. 1988. Nutrient allowances for growing pigs. Research and Development in Agriculture 5: 71–88.Google Scholar
Sugahara, M., Baker, D. H., Harman, B. G. and Jensen, A. H. 1970. Effect of ambient temperature on performance and carcass development in young swine. Journal of Animal Science 31: 59–66.Google Scholar
Tess, M. W., Dickerson, G. E., Nienaber, J. A. and Ferrell, C. L. 1984a. The effects of body composition on fasting heat production in pigs. Journal of Animal Science 58: 99–110.Google Scholar
Tess, M. W., Dickerson, G. E., Nienaber, J. A., Yen, J. T. and Ferrell, C. L. 1984b. Energy costs of protein and fat deposition in pigs fed ad libitum . Journal of Animal Science 58: 111–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnpenny, J. R. 1997. Potential impacts of climate change on the energy balance of UK livestock. Ph. D. thesis, University of Nottingham.Google Scholar
Turnpenny, J. R., McArthur, A. J., Clark, J. A. and Wathes, C. M. 2000. Thermal balance of livestock. 1. A parsimonious model. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 101: 15–27.Google Scholar
Verstegen, M. W. A. 1971. Influence of environmental temperature on energy metabolism of growing pigs housed individually and in groups. Ph. D. thesis, University of Wageningen.Google Scholar
Verstegen, M. W. A., Brandsma, H. A. and Mateman, G. 1982. Feed requirement of growing pigs at low environmental temperatures. Journal of Animal Science 55: 88–94.Google Scholar
Verstegen, M. W. A., Greef, K. H. de and Gerrits, W. J. J. 1995. Thermal requirements in pigs and modelling of the effects of coldness. In Modelling growth in the pig (ed. P. J.Moughan, , Verstegen, M. W. A. and Visser-Reyneveld, M. I.), pp. 123–135. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1976. A study of growth responses to nutrient inputs by modelling. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 35: 383–391.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1983. Development of recommended energy and protein allowances for growing pigs. Agricultural Systems 11: 159–186.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1997. An analysis of methods for the utilisation of net energy concepts to improve the accuracy of feed evaluation in diets for pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology 68: 89–99.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1998. The science and practice of pig production, second edition. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 1999. The case for net energy and net protein models for performance prediction in pigs. Pig News and Information 20: 45N–48N.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. 2000. A commentary upon the US National Research Council (NRC, 1998) protein and energy requirements of swine. Pig News and Information 21: 15N–22N Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. and Fawcett, R. H. 1976. Theoretical aspects of a flexible model to simulate protein and lipid growth in pigs. Animal Production 22: 87–96.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T., Green, D. M. and Knap, P. 2001. Technical review of the energy and protein requirements of growing pigs: food intake. Animal Science 73: 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittemore, C. T. and Hastie, S. W. 1977. Effects of a gastric ulcer upon protein metabolism in a pig. Veterinary Record 100: 13.Google Scholar
Whittemore, C. T., Taylor, H. M., Henderson, R., Wood, J. D. and Brock, D. C. 1981. Chemical and dissected composition changes in weaned piglets. Animal Production 32: 203–210.Google Scholar