Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4rdrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-14T15:56:33.310Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The North American Perspective On Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2015

Russell A. Barkley
Russell A. Barkley*
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychiatry and Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical Centre
*
Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, Phone: 508-856-5843, Fax: 508-856-6426
Get access

Abstract

The purpose of the present paper is to (1) provide an overview of the nature of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as it seems to be viewed by North American clinicians and clinical scientists; (2) describe its diagnostic criteria as they are applied in that region; (3) discuss the prevalence of ADHD in the region; and (4) briefly present a new theoretical model of the authors emerging from that North American perspective. Some of the critical issues related to these matters will be raised along the way. Given the thousands of scientific papers on this topic, however, an overview of these various topics is all that space here can afford. Readers wishing a more thorough treatment of these topics as well as those pertaining to history, developmental courses, associated risks, assessment, and treatments for ADHD are directed to other writings by the author (Barkley, 1990).

Keywords

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDisinhibition
Type
Research Article
Information
The Educational and Developmental Psychologist , Volume 13 , Issue 1: Special Double Issue: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder , May 1996 , pp. 2 - 23
Copyright
Copyright © Australian Psychological Society 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Profile and Child Behavior Checklist. Burlington, VT: Author.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1984). Psychopathology of childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 35, 227–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1987). Empirically based assessment of the behavioral\emotional problems of 2- and 3-year-old children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 629–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achenbach, T.M., McConaughy, S.H., & Howell, C.T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, D. C: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, C.A., Hinshaw, S.P., & Simmel, C. (1994). Mother-child interactions in ADHD and comparison boys: Relationships with overt and covert externalizing behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 247–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Applegate, B., Lahey, B.B., Hart, E.L., Waldman, I., Biederman, J., Hynd, G.W., Barkley, R.A., Ollendick, T., Frick, P.J., Greenhill, L., McBurnett, K., Newcorn, J., Kerdyk, L., Garfinkel, B., & Shaffer, D. (in press). The age of onset for DSM-IV attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A report of the DSM-IV field trials.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1981). Hyperactive children: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1985). The social interactions of hyperactive children: Developmental changes, drug effects, and situational variation. In McMahon, R. & Peters, R. (Eds.), Childhood disorders: Behavioral-developmental approaches (pp. 218–243). New York:Bruner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. ( 1989). The problem of stimulus control and rule-governed behavior in children with Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity. In Swanson, J. & Bloomingdale, L. (Eds.), Attention deficit disorders. New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1990). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1994). Impaired delayed responding: A unified theory of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In Routh, D.K. (Ed.), Disruptive behavior disorders: Essays in honor of Herbert Quay (pp. 11–57). New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (1996). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In Mash, E.J. & Barkley, R.A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 63–112). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A. (in press). Behavioral inhibition and executive functions: Constructing a unified theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin.Google Scholar
Barkley, R.A., & Cunningham, C.E. (1979). Stimulant drugs and activity level in hyperactive children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 49, 491–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R., Cunningham, C. & Karlsson, J. (1983). The speech of hyperactive children and their mothers: Comparisons with normal children and stimulant drug effects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 105–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R.A., DuPaul, G.J., & McMurray, M.B. (1990). A comprehensive evaluation of attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 775–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R.A., Grodzinsky, G., & DuPaul, G. (1992). Frontal lobe functions in attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: A review and research report. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 163–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, R.A., & Ullman, D.G. (1975). A comparison of objective measures of activity level and distractibility in hyperactive and nonhyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 3, 213–244.Google ScholarPubMed
Beitchman, J.H., Wekerle, C., & Hood, J. (1987). Diagnostic continuity from preschool to middle childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 694–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berk, L.E., & Potts, M.K. (1991). Development and functional significance of private speech among attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, 357–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biederman, J., Keenan, K., & Faraone, S.V. (1990). Parent-based diagnosis of attention deficit disorder predicts a diagnosis based on teacher report. American Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 698–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breen, M.J. (1989). Cognitive and behavioral differences in ADHD boys and girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 711–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronowski, J. (1977). Human and animal languages. A sense of the future (pp. 104–131). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, S.B. (1990). Behavior problems in preschool children. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Campbell, S.B., Douglas, V.I., & Morganstern, G. (1971). Cognitive styles in hyperactive children and the effect of methylphenidate. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12, 55–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S.B., Szumowski, E.K., Ewing, L.J., Gluck, D.S., & Breaux, A.M. (1982). A multidimensional assessment of parent-identified behavior problem toddlers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 569–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, W.J., Faraone, S.V., Biederman, J., & Tsuang, M.T. (1994). Diagnostic accuracy of the Child Behavior Checklist Scales for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A receiver-operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1017–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, N.J., & Minde, K. (1983). The “hyperactive syndrome” in kindergarten children: Comparison of children with pervasive and situational symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 443–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, N.J., Weiss, G., & Minde, K. (1972). Cognitive styles in adolescents previously diagnosed as hyperactive. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13, 203–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P.M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Smith, D., (1994). Expressive control during a disappointment: Variations related to preschoolers behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 30, 835–846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copeland, A.P. (1979). Types of private speech produced by hyperactive and nonhyperactive boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 7, 169–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corkum, P.V., & Siegel, L.S. (1993). Is the continuous performance task a valuable research tool for use with children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1217–1239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costello, E.J., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1991). Pervasive and ADHD situational hyperactivity — Confounding effect of informant: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 367–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danforth, J.S., Barkley, R.A., & Stokes, T.F. (1991). Observations of parent-child interactions with hyperactive children: Research and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 703–727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denckla, M.B. (1994). Measurement of executive function. In Lyon, G.R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 117–142). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Google Scholar
Denckla, M.B., & Rudel, R.G. (1978). Anomalies of motor development in hyperactive boys. Annals of Neurology, 3, 231–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (1990). The development and neural bases of memory functions as indexed by the AB and delayed response task in human infants and infant monkeys. In Diamond, A. (Ed.), The development and neuronal bases of higher cognitive functions. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 608, 276–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, A., Cruttenden, L., & Neiderman, D. (1994). AB with multiple wells: 1. Why are multiple wells sometimes easier than two wells? 2. Memory or memory + inhibition? Developmental Psychology, 30, 192–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, V.I. (1972). Stop, look, and listen: The problem of sustained attention and impulse control in hyperactive and normal children. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 4, 259–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, V.I. (1983). Attention and cognitive problems. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (pp.280–329). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
DuPaul, G.J. (1991). Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms: Psychometric properties in a community-based sample. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 245–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelbrock, C.S., & Costello, A. (1988). Convergence between statistically derived behavior problem syndromes and child psychiatric diagnoses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 219–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischer, M., Barkley, R.A., Fletcher, K. & Smallish, L. (1993a). The stability of dimensions of behavior in ADHD and normal children over an 8 year period. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 315–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, M., Barkley, R.A., Fletcher, K., & Smallish, L. (1993b). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria, V: Predictors of outcome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psvchiatry, 32,324–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuster, J.M. (1989). The prefrontal cortex. New York: Raven.Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (1987). Development of cortical circuitry and cognitive function. Child Development, 58, 601–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, S., & Goldstein, M. (1990). Managing attention disorders in children. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Goodyear, P., & Hynd, G. (1992). Attention deficit disorder with (ADD/H) and without (ADDAVO) hyperactivity: Behavioral and neuropsychological differentiation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 273–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goyette, C.H., Conners, C.K., & Ulrich, R.F. (1978). Normative data on revised Conners Parent and Teacher Rating Scales. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 221–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford Press.Google Scholar
Green, L., Fry, A.F., & Meyerson, J. (1994). Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison. Psychological Science, 5, 33–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grodzinsky, G.M., & Diamond, R. (1992). Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 427–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haenlein, M., & Caul, W.F. (1987). Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity: A specific hypothesis of reward dysfunction. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 356–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halperin, J.M., Matier, K., Bedi, G., Sharma, V., & Newcorn, J.H. (1992). Specificity of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity to the diagnosis of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 190–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamlett, K.W., Pellegrini, D.S., & Conners, C.K. (1987). An investigation of executive processes in the problem-solving of attention deficit disorder-hyperactive children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12, 227–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, E.L., Lahey, B.B., Loeber, R., Applegate, B., Green, S. & Frick, P.J. (in press). Developmental change in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in boys: A four-year longitudinal study. Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S.P. (1987). On the distinction between attention deficits/hyperactivity and conduct problems/aggression in child psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 443–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinshaw, S.P. (1994). Attention deficits and hyperactivity in children. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S.P., Buhrmeister, D., & Heller, T. (1989). Anger control in response to verbal provocation: Effects of stimulant medication for boys with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 393–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinshaw, S.P., Herbsman, C., Melnick, S., Nigg, J., & Simmel, C. (1993, February). Psychological and familial processes in ADHD: Continuous or discontinuous with those in normal comparison children?. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, Santa Fe, NM.Google Scholar
James, H. (1890). The principles of psychology. London: Dover.Google Scholar
Kanfer, F.H., & Karoly, P. (1972). Self-control: Abehavioristic excursion into the lion’s den. Behavior Therapy, 3, 398–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B.B., Applegate, B., McBurnett, K., Biederman, J., Greenhill, L., et al. (in press). DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of American Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Lahey, B.B., & Carlson, C.L. (1992). Validity of the diagnostic category of attention deficit disorder without hyperactivity: A review of the literature. In Shaywitz, S.E. & Shaywitz, B.A. (1992). Attention deficit disorder comes of age: Toward the twenty-first century (pp. 119–144). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Lahey, B.B., Pelham, W.E., Schaughency, E.A., Atkins, M.S., Murphy, H.A., Hynd, G.W., Russo, M., Hartdagen, S., & Lorys-Vernon, A. (1988). Dimensions and types of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity in children: A factor and cluster-analytic approach. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 330–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, N.M., Sandoval, J., & Sassone, D. (1978). Prevalence of hyperactivity in elementary school children as a function of social system definers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 48, 446–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P.J. (1995). The emotion probe. American Psychologist, 50, 372–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lapouse, R., & Monk, M. (1958). An epidemiological study of behavior characteristics in children. American Journal of Public Health. 48. 1134–1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerner, J.A., Inui, T.S., Trupin, E.W., & Douglas, E. (1985). Preschool behavior can predict future psychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 42–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P.M., Hops, H., Roberts, R.E., Seeley, J.R., & Andrews, J.A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., Green, S.M., Lahey, B.B., Christ, M.A., G., & Frick, P.J. (1992). Developmental sequences in the age of onset of disruptive child behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 1, 21–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luk, S. (1985). Direct observations studies of hyperactive behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 338–344.Google ScholarPubMed
Malone, M.A., Kerschner, J.R., & Swanson, J.M. (1994). Hemispheric processing and methylphenidate effects in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Neurology, 9, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mariani, M., & Barkley, R.A. (1995). Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Submitted for publication, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, Worcester, MA.Google Scholar
McArdle, P., O’Brien, G., & Kolvin, I. (1995). Hyperactivity: Prevalence and relationship with conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 279–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., Partridge, F., Silva, P.A., & Kelly, J. (1990). DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 611–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGee, R., Williams, S., & Feehan, M. (1992). Attention deficit disorder and age of onset of problem behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 487–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michon, J. (1985). Introduction. In Michon, J., & Jackson, T. (Eds.), Time, mind, & behavior. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milich, R., & Lorch, E.P. (1994). Television viewing methodology to understand cognitive processing of ADHD children. In Ollendick, T.H. & Prinz, R.J. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology, Volume 16 (pp. 177–202). New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, K., & Barkley, R.A. (1995). Preliminary adult norms for DSM-IV ADHD and Oppositional Defiant Disorder symptom lists. Submitted University of Massachusetts Medical Center, Worcester, MA.Google Scholar
Nucci, L.P., & Herman, S. (1982). Behavioral disordered children’s conceptions of moral, conventional, and personal issues. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 411–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palfrey, J.S., Levine, M.D., Walker, D.K., & Sullivan, M. (1985). The emergence of attention deficits in early childhood: A prospective study. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 6, 339–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pelham, W.E., Gnagy, E.M., Greenslade, K.E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 210–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porrino, L.J., Rapoport, J.L., Behar, D., Sceery, W., Ismond, D.R., & Bunney, W.E. Jr. (1983). A naturalistic assessment of the motor activity of hyperactive boys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 681–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quay, H.C. (1989). The behavioral reward and inhibition systems in childhood behavior disorder. In Bloomingdale, L.M. (Ed.), Attention Deficit Disorder 111: New research in treatment, psychopharmacology, and attention (pp. 176–186). New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Rapoport, J.L., Donnelly, M., Zametkin, A., & Carrougher, J. (1986). “Situational hyperactivity” in a U.S. clinical setting. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 639–646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapport, M.D., Tucker, S.B., DuPaul, G.J., Merlo, M., & Stoner, G. (1986). Hyperactivity and frustration: The influence of control over and size of rewards in delaying gratification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 181–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, M.A. (1990). Abehavioral observation method for differentiating hyperactive and aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 131–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R.H., & Allen, T.W. (1978). An examination of attention, arousal, and learning dysfunctions of hyperkinetic children. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 689–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, D.M., & Ross, S.A. (1982). Hyperactivity: Research, theory, and action. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Routh, D.K., & Schroeder, C.S. (1976). Standardized playroom measures as indices of hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 199–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schachar, R.J., & Logan, G.D. (1990). Impulsivity and inhibitory control in normal development and childhood psychopathology. Developmental Psychology, 26, 710–720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schachar, R., Rutter, M., & Smith, A. (1981). The characteristics of situationally and pervasively hyperactive children: Implications for syndrome definition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22, 375–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schachar, R.J., Tannock, R., & Logan, G. (1993). Inhibitory control, impulsiveness, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 721–740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sergeant, J. (1988). From DSM-III attentional deficit disorder to functional defects. In Bloomingdale, L. & Sergeant, J. (Eds.), Attention deficit disorder: Criteria, cognition, and intervention (pp. 183–198). New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J., & Scholten, C.A. (1985). On resource strategy limitations in hyperactivity: Cognitive impulsivity reconsidered. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 97–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sergeant, J., & van der Meere, J.P. (1994). Toward an empirical child psychopathology. In Routh, D.K. (Ed.), Disruptive behavior disorders in children (pp. 59–86). New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmell, C., & Hinshaw, S.P. (1993, March.). Moral reasoning and antisocial behavior in bovs with ADHD. Poster presented at the binennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New OrleansGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R.L., Davies, M., & Barkley, R.A. (1990). The DSM-III-R field trial for the Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 690–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinkamp, M.W. (1980). Relationships between environmental distractions and task performance of hyperactive and normal children. Journal of learning Disabilities, 13, 40–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Still, G.F. (1902). Some abnormal psychical conditions in children. Lancet, 1, 1008–1012, 1077–1082, 1163–1168.Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T., & Benson, D.F. (1986). The frontal lobes. New York: Raven.Google Scholar
Szatmari, P. (1992). The epidemiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders. In Weiss, G. (Ed.), Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 361–372). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.Google Scholar
Szatmari, P., Offord, D.R., & Boyle, M.H. (1989). Correlates, associated impairments, and patterns of service utilization of children with attention deficit disorders: Findings from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 205–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, E., Sandberg, S., Thorley, G., & Giles, S. (1991). The epidemiology of childhood hyperactivity. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Torgesen, J.K. (1994). Issues in the assessment of executive function: An information-processing perspective. In Lyon, G.R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 143–162). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Google Scholar
Trites, R.L. (1979). Hyperactivity in children: Etiology, measurement, and treatment implications. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Trites, R.L., Dugas, R., Lynch, G., & Ferguson, B. (1975). Incidence of hyperactivity. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 4, 179–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velez, C.N., Johnson, J., & Cohen, P. (1989). A longitudinal analysis of selected risk factors for childhood psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 861–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voelker, S.L., Carter, R.A., Sprague, D.J., Gdowski, C.L., & Lachar, D. (1989). Developmental trends in memory and metamemory in children with attention deficit disorder. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 14, 75–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In The collected works ofL. S. Vygotsky, Vol. 1. Problems in general psychology (Minick, N., Trans.). New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Weiss, G., & Hechtman, L. (1993). Hyperactive children grown up. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Welsh, M.C., & Pennington, B.F. (1988). Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 4, 199–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werry, J.S., Elkind, G.S., & Reeves, J.S. (1987). Attention deficit, conduct, oppositional, and anxiety disorders in children: III. Laboratory differences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 409–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werry, J.S., & Quay, H.C. (1971). The prevalence of behavior symptoms in younger elementary school children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 41, 136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zentall, S.S. (1985). A context for hyperactivity. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 4, 273–343.Google Scholar
Zentall, S.S. (1988). Production deficiencies in elicited language but not in the spontaneous verbalizations of hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 657–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zentall, S.S., & Smith, Y.S. (1993). Mathematical performance and behavior of children with hyperactivity with and without coexisting aggression. Behavior Research and Therapy, 31, 701–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed