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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 25 September 2015
The twelfth century canon lawyer Gratian once wrote “Feed the man dying of hunger, because if you have not fed him you have killed him.” If Gratian were alive today, he might take a look at the current state of global health and say, “Succor the woman dying of disease, because if you have not helped her you have killed her.” Both of these statements express an ethical obligation: if I have food, and someone else who is hungry does not, I am obligated to share my food. Likewise, if I have medicine, and someone else who is sick does not, I am obligated to share my medicine.
Unfortunately, with regard to medicines and other essential products, modern institutions of intellectual property often fail to enforce or even recognize such ethical obligations. In some ways, these institutions uphold an even harsher attitude toward intellectual property than other types of property. With food, even if the hungry person receives no bread, he is still permitted to produce his own. With medicines, medical technologies, and other types of goods that are protected by institutions of intellectual property, the law can and often does prevent the sick person from producing her own.
1. Gratian, D.86 c.21.
2. See Posner, Richard A., The Law and Economics of Intellectual Property, Daedalus, Spring 2002, at 5, 12Google Scholar.
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7. Posner, supra note 2, at 12.
8. See May, Christopher & Sell, Susan K., Intellectual Property Rights: A Critical History 7 (Lynne Rienner 2006)Google Scholar.
9. These economic terms refer to the tradeoff that intellectual property makes between the short-run and long run. In the short run, static efficiency is negatively affected when the monopoly created by intellectual property rights allows a seller to price a good at a much higher level than he or she would be able to in a competitive market. In the long run, however, these static inefficiencies may promote dynamic efficiency by providing incentives to create newer and more efficient goods and services.
10. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 26 (referring to this as a “public goo[d] of diffusion”).
11. See infra Pt. IV.A.
12. See infra note 133.
13. See, e.g., Trouiller, Patriceet al., Drug Development for Neglected Diseases: A Deficient Market and a Public-Health Policy Failure, 359 Lancet 2188 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. (“[O]f 1393 new chemical entities marketed between 1975 and 1999, only 16 were for tropical diseases and tuberculosis”).
14. May & Sell, supra note 8, at 1.
15. See id. at 20-21.
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22. Curran, Charles E., Catholic Social Teaching 1891-Present: A Historical, Theological, and Ethical Analysis 181 (Georgetown Univ. Press 2002)Google Scholar.
23. See Catechism of the Catholic Church, pt. 3, § 2, ch. 2, art. 7, No. 1, http://www.Vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a7.htm#l (last visited Mar. 13, 2010).
24. See, e.g., Hiers, Richard H., Biblical Social Welfare Legislation: Protected Classes and Provisions for Persons in Need, 17 J.L. & Religion 49 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Patterson, Richard D., The Widow, the Orphan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra-Biblical Literature, 130 Bibliotheca Sacra 223 (1973)Google Scholar; Fensham, F. Charles, Widow, Orphan and the Poor in Ancient Near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature, 21 J. Near E. Stud. 129 (1962)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See generally Weinfeld, Moshe, Social Justice in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East (Fortress 1995)Google Scholar.
25. See Cover, supra note 20.
26. Deut 24:19-21 (All Biblical citations are from the NRSV.).
27. Lev 23:22.
28. Deut 14:28-29.
29. See Hiers, supra note 24, at 66-82.
30. Id. at 66.
31. Lev 25:23.
32. See generally North, Robert, Sociology of the Biblical Jubilee (Pontifical Biblical Inst. 1954)Google Scholar; Fager, Jeffrey A., Land Tenure and the Biblical Jubilee (JSOT Press 1993)Google Scholar.
33. 3B Milgrom, Jacob, The Anchor Bible: Leviticus 23-27, at 2185 (Doubleday 2001)Google Scholar.
34. Chrysostom, John, Homily LXXVII on the Gospel of Matthew § 3 (c. 400), reprinted inPeter C. Phan, Social Thought 146 (Michael Glazier 1984)Google Scholar.
35. John Chrysostom, Homily X on the First Letter to the Corinthians § 3 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 151.
36. John Chrysostom, Homily XI on the First Letter to Timothy § 2 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 157.
37. Ambrose, On Naboth § 58 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 175.
38. See, e.g., Ehrenfield, David & Bentley, Philip J., Judaism and the Practice of Stewardship, 34 Judaism 301 (1985)Google Scholar.
39. See Matt 25:14-30; see also Luke 19:12-27 (the parable of the pounds, a similar but less well-known text).
40. Matt 25:29.
41. See, e.g., Carpenter, John B., The Parable of the Talents in Missionary Perspective: A Call for an Economic Spirituality, 25 Missiology: Int'l Rev. 165 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. But see Chenoweth, Ben, Identifying the Talents: Contextual Clues for the Interpretation of the Parable of the Talents, 56.1Tyndale Bull. 61 (2005)Google Scholar (arguing that this traditional interpretation of the parable is incorrect).
42. John Chrysostom, Homily LXXVII on the Gospel of Matthew § 3 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 145.
43. 17 The Oxford English Dictionary 580 (2d ed., Oxford Univ. Press 1989)Google Scholar.
44. See Catechism of the Catholic Church, supra note 23, at Nos. 1, 6.
45. John Chrysostom, Homily Il to the People of Antioch § 6 (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 138-39. Chrysostom is referring to 1 Timothy 6:17, traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, which in its entirety reads, “As for those who in the present age are rich, command them not to be haughty, or to set their hopes on the uncertainty of riches, but rather on God who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment.”
46. Id. at 139.
47. Id.
48. Ambrose, On Duties § 132 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 177.
49. Augustine, City of God bk. 19, ch. 13 (c. 425), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 235.
50. Id. at 235-36.
51. Augustine, Sermons (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 226.
52. Augustine, Letter to Macedonius (c. 400), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 208.
53. Basil, The Short Rules § 92 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 121.
54. Basil, Homily Delivered in Times of Famine and Drought § 7 (c. 375), reprinted in Social Thought, supra note 34, at 119.
55. Social Thought, supra note 34, at 136. See supra note 46 and accompanying text.
56. See Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, pt. 2.2, § 66, art. 1 (c. 1270); see also Curran, supra note 22, at 175.
57. Aquinas, supra note 56, at art. 1. It is interesting to note that Thomas's justifications are almost a medieval forerunner to the modern notion of the “tragedy of the commons,” the idea that resources held in common will inevitably be damaged or destroyed by overuse of individuals because each person attends only to their own individual interests. For the classic exposition of the tragedy of the commons, see Hardin, Garrett, The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 Sci. 1243, 1244 (1968)Google ScholarPubMed.
58. Thomas, supra note 56, at art. 2.
59. id. at art. 7.
60. Id.
61. Id. at art. 2.
62. Brady, supra note 21, at 60.
63. Leo, Pope XIII, Rerum Novarum § 9 (1891), reprinted in Catholic Social Thought: The Documentary Heritage 17 (O'Brien, David J. & Shannon, Thomas A. eds., Orbis 1992)Google Scholar.
64. Locke, John, Second Treatise of Government, ch. 5 § 26-27 (MacPherson, C.B. ed., C.B. MacPherson 1980) (1689)Google Scholar.
65. See Curran, supra note 22, at 177.
66. Leo XIII, supra note 63, at § 3, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 23.
67. “On the fortieth year”; Quadragesimo Anno was promulgated in 1931, the fortieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum.
68. Leo XIII's teachings on property, the encyclical notes, were causing some to “accuse the supreme pontiff and the Church as upholding both then and now the wealthier classes against the proletariat.” Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno (1931), reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 51.
69. Id. at 52.
70. Id. at 55.
71. “Joy and hope.“
72. Second Vatican Council, Gaudium et Spes § 69 (1965), reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 212-13.
73. Curran, supra note 22, at 180.
74. “Concern about social matters.”
75. Paul, Pope John II, Sollicitude Rei Sodalis § 42 (1987)Google Scholar, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 426.
76. Pope John Paul II, Message of the Holy Father to the Group “Jubilee 2000 Debt Campaign,” 1999) 4 ¶, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/1999/september/documents/hf_jp-ii_mes_23091999Jubilee-2000-debt-campaign_en.html (last visited Mar. 24, 2010).
77. It would be informative, however, to consider traditional historical justifications for new forms of property before those new forms are codified into law.
78. Benkler, Yochai, Intellectual Property and the Organization of Information Production, 22 Int'l Rev. L. & Econ. 81, 83 n. 13 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
79. Your use of an idea or arrangement of words may very well diminish my ability to economically exploit the same idea or arrangement of words, but it does not diminish my ability to utilize the idea or arrangement itself.
80. Thomas, supra note 56, at art. 2.
81. U.S. Const, art. 1, § 8, cl. 8.
82. Fox Film Corp. v. Doyal, 286 U.S. 123, 127 (1932).
83. Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 429 (1984).
84. Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470, 480 (1974).
85. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 7.
86. Finn, supra note 17, at 51–52.
87. Id. at 52 (“[T]he vast majority of the value of the wealth we enjoy in the modern world is not in any simple sense ‘nature's bounty … placed by God at the disposal of all his children indiscriminately.’ Human intelligence, creativity, and hard work have created it.”).
88. Benkler, Yochai, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom 311–12 (Yale Univ. Press 2006)Google Scholar.
89. John Paul II, Centesimus Annus §§ 31-32 (1991); reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 462-63.
90. Finn, supra note 19, at 60-61.
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92. May & Sell, supra note 8, at 25 (“Any approach that is based on the (just) rewards to individual endeavor in knowledge creation aims to deny or at least downplay the social context and common heritage on which all new knowledge must be built…. From the basics of language to the development of complex ideas, we need to learn much before we can innovate.”).
93. Benkler, supra note 88, at 37.
94. See supra pp. 424-25.
95. Finn, supra note 17, at 56.
96. Paul, John II, Laborem Exercens § 27 (1981)Google Scholar, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 388 (“All work, whether manual or intellectual, is inevitably linked with toil.”).
97. See supra pp. 434-35.
98. Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, art. 5(a), cl. 2-4, opened for signature Mar. 20, 1883, 21 U.S.T. 1583, 828 U.N.T.S. 305. But see Patent Misuse Reform Act, 35 U.S.C. § 271(d)(4) (2007) (which does not deny relief to patent holders for infringement even if they have “refused to license or use any rights to the patent”).
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103. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 2008, at 32, UNAIDS/08.25E/JC1510E (2008).
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105. See supra note 17, and accompanying text.
106. The Agreement on Trade Relate Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), is a highly influential and controversial international agreement that applies to all members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Among other things, it sets minimum global standards for the protection of various forms of intellectual property. See May & Sell, supra note 8, at 161-201.
107. See, e.g., Hoen, Ellen 't, TRIPS, Pharmaceutical Patents, and Access to Essential Medicines: A Long Way from Seattle to Doha, 3 Chi. J. Int'l L. 27 (2002)Google ScholarPubMed; Abbott, Frederick M., The TRIPS agreement. Access to Medicines, and the WTO Doha Ministerial Conference, 5 J. World Intell. Prop. 15 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Velasquez, Germán & Boulet, Pascale, Globalization and Access to Drugs: Perspectives on the WTO/TRIPS Agreement pt. I, WHO/DAP/98.9 (2d ed., 1999)Google Scholar.
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109. Id.
110. Id.
111. Bicanic, Tihana & Harrison, Thomas S., Cryptococcal Meningitis, 72 Brit. Med. Bull. 110 (2004)Google ScholarPubMed.
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114. Sithole, Emelia, S. Africa Okays Pfizer AIDS Drug Distribution, Reuters News, 06 21, 2001Google Scholar.
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128. Vaccines, however, raise some special ethical issues, since their use is preventative rather than responsive, as in the case of both fluconazole and antiretroviral drugs.
129. Gratian, supra note 1.
130. Second Vatican Council, supra note 72, reprinted in Catholic Social Thought, supra note 63, at 213.
131. Martin, Diarmuid, Intervention by His Excellency Mons. Diarmuid Martin to the Plenary Council of the World Trade Organization on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 3 (2001), available at http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/doc1unents/rc_seg-st_doc_20010620_wto_en.htmlGoogle Scholar.
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137. One would never expect to see compulsory licensing of products such as Rogaine or Viagra.
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145. See Boseley, supra note 100.
146. See Flynn, Seanet al., An Economic Justification for Open Access to Essential Medicine Patents in Developing Countries 13–22 (Univ. Calgary Dept. Econ., Working Paper 2009–2001), available at http://ideas.repec.org/p/clg/wpaper/2009-01.htmlGoogle ScholarPubMed.
147. See Outterson, supra note 116, at 160-61.
148. See, e.g., X-Prize Foundation, Ansari X Prize, http://space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize (last visited Feb. 25, 2009) ($10 million prize for the first private organization to develop and demonstrate a reusable manned spacecraft that could be launched two times in two weeks).
149. See Hollis & Pogge, supra note 139.
150. May & Sell, supra note 8, at 19.
