Many rangelands of the world are fire dependent and display a strong interaction between fire and grazing on animal behavior, productivity and ecosystem processes. The application of this fire–grazing interaction as patch-burn grazing (PBG) has recently been promoted in North America to conserve biodiversity and as an alternative for livestock management in fire-prone ecosystems to enhance forage quality and other production benefits. PBG is functionally applied by burning spatially and temporally discrete patches to allow livestock to choose where and when to graze. However, considering that the primary intent of PBG in fire-dependent ecosystems has been for the conservation of biodiversity, we synthesized the peer-reviewed literature to assess PBG as an alternative strategy for livestock management in fire-prone ecosystems. We reviewed the literature to assess PBG as an alternative livestock management approach to optimize animal production and conserve biodiversity in fire-prone ecosystems. We reviewed the results of 83 studies that focused on two main areas: (1) livestock production and inputs and (2) maintaining or improving ecosystem functioning and biodiversity to support sustainable livestock production. PBG can optimize cattle production by offsetting input costs such as supplemental feed, insecticides, herbicides, mechanical brush control, veterinary costs and cross-fencing. PBG can also maintain native herbaceous plant communities that are the resource base for cattle grazing enterprises by reducing woody plant encroachment, stimulating above- and below-ground biomass of native perennial grasses, enhancing nutrient cycling and optimizing plant diversity. PBG creates a habitat mosaic critical for many trophic levels of wildlife, particularly grassland birds, which are currently in decline. Further research is needed to clarify the potential environmental gradients defining applicability of PBG, economic outcomes of PBG, potential gastro-intestinal parasite control with PBG and other metrics of animal production. Overall, PBG is a viable management approach to improve productivity and biodiversity in fire-regulated grassland ecosystems in a manner supported by both fire and grazing disturbances. This is especially true when these communities have other organisms that depend on periodic disturbance and interaction with large animal grazing and is supported by ample empirical research.

Distances to common production and marketing supply chain destinations may vary, and this has economic and animal health implications for small-scale food animal operations. Proximity to these destinations can affect the economic viability and marketing decisions of small-scale operations and may represent significant barriers to sustainability. Data were collected using a cross-sectional survey conducted by the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA) National Animal Health Monitoring System in 2011 using a stratified systematic sample of 16,000 small-scale (gross annual farm sales between US$10,000 and 499,999) operations from all 50 states. A total of 7925 food-animal operations were asked about the farthest one-way distance (in miles) to slaughter facilities, destinations where they sold animals or products, and feed sources. Across all small-scale operations, 95% of operations reported the farthest distance animals or products were transported for sale was 241 km (150 miles) or less. For distance to slaughter facilities, 95% of operations reported the farthest distance was 145 km (90 miles) or less. For feed shipped by a supplier, 95% of operations reported the farthest distance was 322 km (200 miles) or less. The 95th percentile for distance increased as farm sales increased, indicating larger operations were more likely to travel long distances. The results of this study are an important benchmark for understanding the economic and animal health implications of long transportation distances for operations that are small and/or focused on direct marketing.

We conducted a cropping systems experiment in central Pennsylvania, USA, to determine the effects of initial cover crop species and soil management on the abundance and composition of the ground-dwelling arthropod community. We hypothesized that we would detect legacy effects of the cover crops planted in year 1 of a 3-yr crop sequence on the arthropod community in the subsequent 2 yrs, and that these effects would be influenced by the intensity of tillage. We compared four systems in a factorial combination of perennial sod and legumes or annual cereal grain and legume as initial cover crops and moldboard or chisel plow tillage implemented in soybeans followed by maize in the subsequent 2 yrs. The entire experiment was initiated twice in adjacent locations, starting in 2003 (Start 1) and 2004 (Start 2). We quantified soil arthropod activity-density and community composition and identified all arthropods to order or family, and the ground and tiger beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) to species. In Start 1, but not Start 2, arthropod activity-density increased with each year following implementation of organic management. We observed few legacy effects of cover crop or tillage intensity on arthropod activity-density. The composition of the soil arthropod community was primarily defined by the initial cover crop in the first year, and by the interaction between cover crop and tillage intensity in the second and third year. A legacy effect associated with a yr-1 cover crop of cereal rye was observed for Scarabaeidae beetles and Formicidae (ants) in yr 2 and Carabidae beetles in yr 3 of Start 1, but not Start 2. Weed indicators contributed significantly to the variation in the soil arthropod community that was explained by the environment in yr 2 in Start 1, and in yr 3 in both Starts. Our observations support the concept that both immediate and legacy effects of management shape arthropod communities during the organic transition period, suggesting that transitioning systems could be managed in ways that conserve or enhance natural enemy populations.

Organically produced pork occupies only a small niche in the European meat market, with one of the main reasons being the shortage of locally produced high-quality protein sources. In an effort to promote currently under-utilized protein sources, two feeding trials were conducted with grass pea seeds as feed for weaned piglets. The grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) is a hardy grain legume that produces protein-rich seeds, but, as other grain legumes, it contains several anti-nutritive compounds. Apart from trypsin inhibitors and tannins, it also contains the neurotoxin β-N-oxalyl-L-α,β-diaminopropionic acid (ODAP) which may cause nerve damage in farm animals as well as humans. The content of both trypsin inhibitors and ODAP can be greatly reduced by hydrothermal treatment; therefore both raw and hydrothermally treated grass pea seeds were used in the two feeding trials. Diets were fed to 152 and 144 piglets [crosses of (Pietrain × Duroc) × (Landrace × Large White)] respectively, during their rearing phase directly after weaning. In experiment 1, a control diet was compared with two diets containing 10 and 20% raw grass pea seeds, plus one diet with 20% treated grass pea seeds, respectively (as fed basis). In experiment 2, a control diet was compared with one diet containing 20% raw grass pea seeds and two diets containing 20 and 30% treated grass pea seeds, respectively (as fed basis). Grass pea seeds contained 265 and 271 g kg−1 crude protein (as fed basis) in the first and second experiment, respectively, and had an amino acid profile similar to peas (Pisum sativum), including relatively low contents of methionine and cysteine. Hydrothermally treated grass pea seeds were found to be a valuable protein source that was well accepted by piglets. At an inclusion rate of 20–30% in diets, feed intake and daily weight gain of piglets was very similar to that of the control treatment. However, including 20% raw grass pea seeds had a significant negative effect on feed intake in experiment 1 and on daily weight gain in experiment 2. Therefore, hydrothermal treatment of grass pea seeds is recommended prior to feeding to piglets.

Local food purchasing programs at institutions such as K-12 schools, colleges and hospitals offer benefits including supporting farms and local economies, encouraging more healthful eating habits of patrons and fostering closer connections between farmers and consumers. Increasing in number and expanding in breadth, Farm to Institution (FTI) markets are promising outlets that may fulfill social and economic motivations for farmers. However, significant challenges and barriers have kept many from participating; farmers interested in this market will incur transaction costs, with high negotiation costs in particular due to product differentiation (in this case, by provenance) and less established markets and terms. Researchers have just begun to study farmers’ perspectives on FTI and, to date, have primarily done so through convenience sampling. By utilizing a representative farmer sample, this study provides a major contribution to FTI research. This survey study was designed to better understand Michigan vegetable farmers’ interest and willingness to participate in institutional markets and to identify perceived barriers and opportunities. Michigan is an ideal location for this research as it boasts one of the most diverse sets of agricultural crops in the US, has an economy highly reliant on the food and agriculture industry and has thriving FTI activity with extensive, ongoing outreach, education and research. Results of this survey study showed that half (50%) of the respondents (n = 311) reported interest in selling to at least one institution type (of K-12 schools, colleges and hospitals), but only a small percentage (7%) had yet sold produce to institutions. The most frequently reported motivators to sell to institutions were supplying healthy foods to customers (77%), fair, steady prices (77%) and supplying local food to consumers (76%), indicating that farmers’ motivations are largely based in social values. Smaller scale farmers (less than 25 acres) were significantly less likely to rate economic factors and help in meeting logistical challenges as important, which suggests that they see more potential social value in FTI markets while larger farmers will seek to minimize their transaction costs related to this market. This research can inform the development of scale-appropriate farmer education to foster this market opportunity and its contribution to regional food system development. As demand for local food increases, it is critical to further examine the viability of FTI markets and continue to understand the opportunities and challenges to farmers of different types and scales to participate.

The rapid growth and co-option of the local agriculture movement highlights a need to deepen connections to place-based culture. Selection of plant varieties specifically adapted to regional production and end-use is an important component of building a resilient food system. Doing so will facilitate a defetishization of food systems by increasing the cultural connection to production and consumption. Today's dominant model of plant breeding relies on selection for centralized production and end-use, thereby limiting opportunity for regional differentiation. On the other hand, end-user-driven selection of heirloom varieties with strong cultural and culinary significance may limit productivity while failing to promote continued advances in end-use quality. Farmer-based selection may directly reflect local food culture; however, increasing genetic gains may require increased exchange of germplasm, and collaboration with trained plant breeders. Participatory farmer–breeder–chef collaborations are an emerging model for overcoming these limitations and adding the strength of culturally based plant breeding to the alternative food movement. These models of variety selection are examined within the context of small grain and dry bean production in Western Washington.

No-till practices have improved crop yields in the semiarid Great Plains. However, a recent assessment of research studies across the globe indicated that crop yields are often reduced by no-till. To understand this contrast, we examined corn yields across time in a no-till cropping system of one producer in central South Dakota to identify factors associated with increased yield. The producer started no-till in 1990; by 2013, corn yield increased 116%. In comparison, corn increased only 32% during this interval with a conventional, tillage-based system in a neighboring county. With no-till, corn yields increased in increments due to changes in management. For example, corn yield increased 52% when crop diversity in the rotation was expanded from 2 to 5 crops. A further 18% gain in yield occurred when dry pea was grown before corn in sequence. Nitrogen (N) requirement for corn is 25% lower in no-till compared with a tillage-based rotation. Furthermore, phosphorus (P) fertilizer input also has been reduced 30% after 20 yr of no-till, even with higher yields. Our case study shows that integrating no-till with crop diversity and soil microbial changes improves corn yield considerably. This integration also reduces need for inputs such as water, N and P.

Support for organic farming is a key strategy of rural development policies in several countries. This paper studied the spatial pattern of participation in agro-environmnetal policy the policies designing to foster diffusion of organic farming. The ultimate goal is to investigate the impact of local factors for improving the policy targeting. Indicators of spatial association and a spatial econometrics model were performed for the analysis. The results show regional agglomeration effects of the rate of participants to the measures adopted to promote organic farming. In addition, a spatial relation among the farms that obtain public support is found, highlighting that the diffusion of participation is driven mainly by imitation process and external economies of scale.

The interest of organic farmers in adopting conservation agriculture principles, including minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop rotation has been growing since the early 2000s. However, currently there is no network for organic farmers practicing conservation agriculture, and a lack of knowledge on how organic farmers implement conservation agriculture in practice. Consequently, few technical references are available for organic farmers when they start applying conservation agriculture practices, in particular on controlling weeds without the use of herbicides. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to explore the diversity of conservation agriculture techniques (i.e., reduced tillage, no-tillage and green manures) practiced among European farmers, and (2) to identify farmers’ main strategies for implementing conservation agriculture and the agronomic and environmental factors that determine these strategies. Strategies were identified by analyzing survey results on: (1) the type and degree of use of conservation agriculture practices by farmers, and (2) the effects it produces in terms of soil disturbance and soil cover (low, medium and high). We carried out a survey of 159 European organic farmers and collected 125 data sets on management of winter-sown crops. Among the conservation agriculture practices, reduced tillage was used by 89%, no-tillage by 27% and green manure by 74% of the 159 interviewed farmers. Green manures were more frequently used in northern Europe than in the south (below 45°N). Most of the farmers used crop rotations, with a mean duration of 6 years. A wide diversity of conservation agriculture practices were used, with farmers rarely using all three techniques (no-till, reduced till and green manures) within one system. The range of practices was grouped into five strategies ranging from intensive non-inversion tillage without soil cover to very innovative techniques with no-tillage and intercrops. The five strategies for conservation agriculture could be grouped into two larger categories based on weed control approach: (1) intensification of the mechanical work without soil inversion or (2) biological regulation of weeds with cover crops. The diversity of strategies identified in this study shows that organic farmers use innovative approaches to implement conservation agriculture without herbicides. This study's findings will help organic farmers to experiment with innovative practices based on conservation agriculture principles and also benefit conventional farmers who use conservation agriculture practices and would like to reduce or eliminate the use of herbicides.

In many developed countries agriculture is undergoing significant changes. Traditional commodity markets are increasingly being supplemented or even displaced by niche markets served by firms producing specialty products. The purpose of this paper is to determine why firms seek out niche markets and what contributes to their success. This paper investigates the characteristics that make niche markets attractive to small and medium-sized agricultural firms and the ways in which these firms become highly adapted for their chosen niche. Results indicate that forming alliances and the development of horizontal and vertical networks are among the most common and most important strategies employed by successful niche marketers. The study found that firms market niche products as part of a portfolio of products that often includes an anchoring commodity. Results also suggest that aggressive growth and pricing strategies may negatively impact a firm's ability to sustain barriers to entry. The development of a niche positioning strategy is often the outcome of a reaction to an existing situation rather than of a priori strategic planning.