I am grateful to Susan Gal, Zsuzsa Gille, Alaina Lemon, and the reviewers for Slavic Review for their insightful comments on various versions of this material. I would also like to thank all those who shared their memories of trainings with me and made those conversations possible. This article grew out of dissertation research supported by the German Marshall Fund of the United States and the Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan.

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8. Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, 127-28.

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11. Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, 4-10.

12. Gal, “Language Ideologies Compared,” 24. Note that in taking a language-ideology approach, I describe positions on language that differ substantially from my own and from those of most linguistic anthropologists and sociolinguists. These include trainers’ tendency to observe power relations in only a single register of speech and, as discussed by Deborah Cameron, related assumptions that equate formality and status marking with distance and authoritarianism. See Cameron, Deborah, “Globalization and the Teaching of ‘Communication Skills,’” in Block, David and Cameron, Deborah, eds., Globalization and Language Teaching (London, 2002), 31 Google Scholar.

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19. Rawles, Richard E., “Soviet Psychology, Perestroika, and the Human Factor: 1985-1991,” in Koltsova, V., Oleinik, Yu., Gilgen, A., and Gilgen, K., eds., Post-Soviet Perspectives on Russian Psychology (Westport, 1996), 101–15Google Scholar.

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22. According to Alberg, their approach to communication was influenced by western game theory as well as Carl Rogers's active listening, here also conveyed through an unusual trajectory: psychologist Frido Mann, grandson of writer Thomas Mann and a Swiss citizen, passed on the technique when working in Leipzig. Traudl Alberg, personal communication, August 17, 2014.

23. These dates are cited in many places, including N. N. Bogomolova, “Nezabyvaemaia Larisa Andreevna,” Zhurnal prakticheskogo pskikhologa, no. 5 (2007): 155; O. M. Deriabina, “K istorii treninga v Rossii (glazami ochevidtsa)” (paper presented at the conference “Psikhologiia obshchenie: Trening chelovechnosti,” Moscow, November 15-17,2007); and Khriashcheva, N. Iu., ed., Psikhogimnastika v treninge (St. Petersburg, 2006), 3 Google Scholar.

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34. Ibid., 106. On subject-subject communication, see also Lomov, B. F., “Obshchenie kak problema obshchei psikhologii,” in Shorokhova, E. V., ed., Metodologicheskie problemy sotsial'noi psikhologii (Moscow, 1975), 124–35Google Scholar.

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37. Social-psychological research on kollektivy is summarized by Oleg Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual in Russia: A Study of Practices (Berkeley, 1999), 97-110. See also Leon'tev, A. A., “Obshchenie kak ob”ekt psikhologicheskogo issledovaniia,” in Shorokhova, E. V., ed., Metodologicheskie problemy sotsial'noi psikhologii (Moscow, 1975)Google Scholar.

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40. lurii Zhukov, interview, Moscow, May 22, 2007.

41. Galina Andreeva, who long chaired the MSU social-psychology division, described the subdiscipline as subject to much less “pressing” than her former field of sociology in a published post-Soviet interview, implying that psychology's resemblance to the natural sciences was a critical factor. She quoted a former chair of psychophysiology: “To a neuron, it is of deep unimportance what's around: capitalism or socialism.” See Pugacheva, M. G. and Iarmoliuk, S. F., “‘Voina sprovotsirovala vsiakie zaprosy o zhizni,’” Sotsiologicheckoe obozrenie 2, no. 3 (2002): 86 Google Scholar.

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47. While Vorwerg alone is generally credited for these trainings in Soviet and Russian publications, he was primarily responsible for the development of the training methodology, which in the GDR was used in several different programs. Fellow GDR researcher Jörg Schmidt, who wrote his habilitation thesis on the topic, is most accurately credited as the primary author of the content on communication, although Alberg also contributed. Their approach, like the Russian adaptations discussed below, conveyed the importance of a partnership orientation but seems to have put more weight on joint problem solving and conflict resolution. See, for example, Schmidt, , “Training der Gesprächsführung in konflikhaltigen Partnersituationen,” in Vorwerg, Manfred, ed., Persönlichkeitspsychologische Forschungen zur Regulation und Modifikation individuellen Verhaltens (Leipzig, 1984)Google Scholar.

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51. Ibid., 9.

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54. Zakharov and Khriashcheva, Sotsial'no-psikhologicheskii trening, 25.

55. Sidorenko, Trening kommunikativnoi kompetentnosti, 76. See also Forverg and Al'berg, “Kharakteristika sotsial'no-psikhologicheskogo treninga,” 61.

56. Zakharov and Khriashcheva, Sotsial'no-psikhologicheskii trening, 24; Forverg and Al'berg, “Kharakteristika sotsial'no-psikhologicheskogo treninga,” 61.

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64. Sidorenko, Trening kommunikativnoi kompetentnosti, 16-18.

65. Ibid., 23.

66. Ibid., 24.

67. Indeed, it is worth noting here that universalistic understandings of similar trainings remain common, and a training pioneer I interviewed in 2007 deflected some of my questions about the particulars of Soviet trainings by pronouncing communication a “universal thing” that “worked” in any political regime. She also observed, however, that efficacy-oriented goals were always accompanied by “humanistic” aims.

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69. Agha, “Voice, Footing, Enregisterment,” 40.

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72. According to Zakharov and Khriashcheva, the signs of not engaging in partnership obshchenie include “ignoring one's partner,” “verbosity,” “interruption,” and a drive to convince others of one's own point of view. See their Sotsial' no-psikhologicheskii trening, 40. Zakharov similarly observes the training's ability to lessen “egocentristic tendencies” in “Primenenie sotsial'no-psikhologicheckogo treninga,” 220.

73. Also see Lopukhina, E. V. and Lopatin, G. S., Videotrening trudnykh situatsii v delovom obshchenii khoziastvennykh rukovoditelei (Moscow, 1986)Google Scholar.

74. Elena Lopukhina, interview, Moscow, May 24, 2007.

75. Bogomolova and Petrovskaia, “O metodakh aktivnoi sotsial'no-psikhologiskoi podgotovki.“

76. See Kharkhordin's discussion of lichnost’ in The Collective and the Individual, 189-90.

77. Petrovskaia, L. A., Kompetentnost' v obshchenii: Sotsial'no-psikhologicheskii trening (Moscow, 1989), 137–38Google Scholar.

78. Ibid., 14-15.

79. Ibid., 123, 125.

80. Rogers himself made a well-publicized visit to the department in 1986, discussed in Cote, Russian Psychology in Transition, although Petrovskaia's intellectual engagement with his work began earlier. Theoretical and Methodological Problems also draws heavily on the work of Soviet pedagogical researcher Vasilii Sukhomlinskii.

81. Petrovskaia, Kompetentnost' v obshchenii, 185.

82. Petrovskaia, , Teoreticheskie i metodicheskie problemy, 3, 110–11Google Scholar.

83. Petrovskaia, Kompetentnost' v obshchenii, 40. The format of the transcript has been modified slightly for readability.

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85. Petrovskaia, Teoreticheskie i metodicheskie problemy, 160.

86. Petrovskaia, Kompetentnost' v obshchenie, 123.

87. Solov'eva, “K 70-letiiu L. A. Petrovskoi.” The special issue proved an occasion not only to reflect on Petrovskaia's legacy but also to begin reconstructing the history of the training movement in print.

88. E. V. Lushpaeva, “Kak vse eto nachinalos'” (paper presented at the conference “Psikhologiia obshchenie: Trening chelovechnosti,” Moscow, November 15-17, 2007).

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93. Ibid., 71,162.

94. Here, I draw from scholars who stress that creative, emergent, and historically situated ideological processes shape pronoun usages rather than fixed contextual variables and social relationships. See especially Silverstein, Michael, “Indexical Order and the Dialectics of Sociolinguistic Life,” Language&Communication 23, nos. 3-4 (2003): 204–11Google Scholar. In this sense, training-related pronoun use needs to be read in light of a more general history of intense attention to meanings and practices of ty/Vy etiquette in the Soviet context, which includes Lev Trotskii's advocacy of a respectful “Vy” between Red Army officers and subordinates and later party members’ combinations of comradely symmetrical “ty” with the conventionally more formal first name and patronymic. See Stites, Richard, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (Oxford, 1989), 134–35Google Scholar; and Epstein, Mikhail, Relativistic Patterns in Totalitarian Thinking: An Inquiry into the Language of Soviet Ideology (Washington, D.C., 1991), 62–65 Google Scholar.

95. Cote, Russian Psychology in Transition, 187. Several contributors to Solov'eva, “K 70-letiiu L. A. Petrovskoi,” also comment on usages of “ty,” as well as first names, in training contexts and beyond.

96. Habermas, The Structural Transformation, 48.

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103. Ibid., 55.

104. Ibid., 62.

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