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A Scotist Way of Distinguishing Between God’s Absolute and Ordained Powers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2016

Eugenio Randi*
Affiliation:
Milan University
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Extract

Ten years after, W.J. Courtenay’s statement that Ockham by potentia absoluta meant the whole possibilities ‘initially open to God’, and not by contrast an actual power of God of undoing or modifying what he has done, seems to have the consensum omnium. Yet in this Conference some attention has been devoted, on one hand, to the juridical tradition of the idea of potentia absoluta, and on the other to its ‘operationalization’: that is, to say it in short, the identification of potentia absoluta with the miracle, and of potentia ordinata with the communis cursus rerum. Heiko A. Oberman has stressed the relevance of this interpretation of the distinction for early Reformation thought, and suggested that such a meaningful shift (from a more ‘traditional’ view) had taken place since d’Ailly. The purpose of my communication is to call the attention to some links between the juridical tradition of the thirteenth century and the later ‘operative’ view of God’s absolute power. If a continuity exists, this is due, in my opinion, to the works of the Scotists.

Type
Research Article
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Copyright © Ecclesiastical History Society 1987 

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References

1 Cf.Courtenay, W. J., ‘Nominalism and Late Medieval Religion’, in Oberman, H. A. and Trinkhaus, Ch., eds., The Pursuit of Holiness in the Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion, (Leiden 1975), pp. 2659.Google Scholar

2 Pierre d’Ailly, Quaesliones in I Sentenliarum, q. 1 a. 1 (Lugdunii 1500), f. 44r, equates potentia ordinata to nullo facto miraculo; cf.Oakley, F., ‘Pierre d’Ailly and the absolute Power of God: Another Note on the Theology of Nominalism’, Harvard Theological Review (1963) pp. 5973, p. 66 n. 23Google Scholar; Courtenay, W.J., ‘The Dialectic of Omnipotence in the High and Late Middle Ages’, in Rudavsky, T., ed., Divine Omniscience and Omnipotence in the Middle Ages (Dordrecht-Boston-Lancaster 1985), pp. 243–70, pp. 257–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar [hereinafter Courtenay, ‘Dialectic’]; Gabriel Biel, for instance, frequently opposes what can be made per potentiam divinam and what naturaliter happens (Collectorium circa IV I. Sententiarum, ed. W. Werbeck and U. Hoffmann, vol. I (Tübingen 1973), I Prol., q. 1 a. 2: the viator can have notitia deitatis, but ‘per potentiam divinam, quia naturaliter est impossibile’); elsewhere he identifies human potentia absoluta with a potentia obedientialis (Collectorium, IV, d. 1 q. 1 a. 3: ‘… potest etiam aliquid de potentia absoluta sive obedientiali secundum quam potest quicquam mediante ipsa Deus potest producere … Posset Deus creare aliqua per aliquem non per eum tamquam auctorem sed ministrum cum quo et in quo operetur … Edam creatura potest aliquid de potentia ordinata quae videlicet potest secundum ordinem a Deo nunc isritutum. Potest etiam aliquid de potentia absoluta … secundum ordinem institui possibiliem’): by that he means that man could perform acts naturaliter impossible to him, ‘obeying’ to the supreme will of God. A similar notion can be found in the Prologue to the first book of the Commentary of John Baconthorpe (OC, d. 1348): potentia obediential is equated to potentia absoluta naturalis, and has the meaning of ‘the disposition of human understanding to overcome its own limits, following God’s command’: ‘intellectus noster de potentia naturali absoluta sua, si Deus vellet potest in ilia cognitionem de Deo quae vocatur supernaturalis’ (Doctoris Resoluti Io. Bachoni in IVor libros Sententiarum quaesliones, 1, Prol, q. 1, a. 3, C (Cremona 1618), t. I, p. 9b). The same with Gerard of Siena OESA(+ 1336), In I librum Sententiarum doctissimae quaestiones, (Patavii 1598, Prol., q. 2 a. 4) ‘Patet ergo, quomodo Veritas, quam scimus per theologiam, non continetur sub obiecto adaequato intelleccus secundum potentiam eius naturalem. Si tamen loquamur de huiusmodi obiecto secundum potentiam obedienrialem, sic Veritas illa continetur sub ilio’; Prol. q. 3, a. 4 ‘Possimus … considerare intellectum humanum secundum suam capacitatem naturalem, precisum ab omni disposinone sive influentia supernaturali, alio modo secundum suam potentiam sive capacitatem obedienrialem’. I am quoting from A. Lang, Die Wege des Glaubensbegründung bei den Scholastiken des 14. Jahrhunderts, (Münster 1930, Beitrâge zur Geschichte der Philosophie (und Theologie) des Mittelalters XX, 1-2) pp. 129-38, and n. 2; cf. p. 186; but see also Jacobus de Viterbio, Disputatio prima de Quolibet, q. 2, ed. E. Ypma, (Würzburg 1968), p. 34. Johannes Eck assumes as exemplary of God’s intervention de potentia absoluta a miracle: ‘Potentia Dei absoluta est quae non concessit illam regulam communem quam [Deus] indidit rebus, sed extendit se ad omnem illud quod non includit contradictionem fieri. Verbi gratia, quando ignis comburit vestem, est secundum communem cursum et naturam ignis. Sed quod non laesit et consumpsit tres pueros in camino fuit de potentia Dei absoluta’ (In I. librum Sententiarum Annotatiunculae D. Iohanne Eckio Praelectore, ed. W. L. Moore (Leiden 1976), p. 123). See also Johannes Mayor, Quaestiones in I Sententiarum, d. 43 q. un. (Parisiis 1510), f. 101vb: ‘Duplex est potentia Dei, ordinata scilicet et absoluta… Alia est potentia Dei ordinata et est illa que est conformis legi ordinate que nobis constat per scripturam vel revelarionem. Non quod sunt duae potenriae in deo realiter disrinctae, sed Deus propter duplicem modum agendi quem habel vel habere potest duobus nominibus vocatur, sicut dicimus multa potest rex de facto quae non potest de iure scripto’ (italics mine). For the radical position of the German Mysticism, see S. Ozment, Homo spiritualis. A comparative study of the anthropology of Johannes Tauter, Jean Gerson and Martin Luther (1509-16), (Leiden 1969) part. pp. 40-1; and Bigalli, D., ‘L’Umanesimo rinascimentale: modelli e interpretazioni’, Rivista di Storia della Filosofia n.s., 39, (1984), pp. 571–94Google Scholar, part. pp. 591-2.

3 Courtenay, , ‘The Dialectic’, p. 235.Google Scholar

4 Scotus, Johannes Duns, Ordinatio, I, d. 44, q. un., Opera omnia, ed. Balie, C., VI, (Rome 1950), pp. 363–5Google Scholar: ‘In omni agenti per intellectum et voluntatem, potente conformiter agere legi recte et tamen non necessario conformiter agere legi rectae, est distinguere potentiam ordinatam a potentia absoluta; et ratio huius est, quia potest agere conformiter illi legi rectae, et tunc secundum potentiam ordinatam (ordinata enim est in quantum est principium exsequendi aliqua conformiter legi rectae), et potest agere praeter illam legem vel contra earn, et in hoc est potentiam absolutam, excedens potentiam ordinatam … Et ideo non tantum in Deo, sed in omni agenti libere … est distinguere inter potentiam absolutam et ordinatam; ideo dicunt iuristae quod aliquis hoc potest facer de facto, hoc est de potentia absoluta sua, vel de iure—hoc est de potentia ordinata secundum iura … Sed quando in potestate agentis est lex et rectitudo legis, ita quod non est recta nisi quia statuta, tunc potest aliter agens ex libértate sua ordinare quam lex ilia recta dictet… Ita possent exemplificari de principe et subdiris, et lege positiva, etc’. Cf. Decretales Gregorii IX, bk. I, tit. 3, cap. 13, ed. Friedberg, II, 21; M. A. Pernoud, ‘The Theory of the Potentia Dei according to Aquinas, Scotus and Ockham’, Antonianum XLVII (1972), pp. 69-95, PP. 84-6; Courtenay, ‘Dialectic’, pp. 253-4,267 n. 43. It is remarkable that Thomas Anglicus (Sutton), after having exposed Scotus’s thesis, could conclude: ‘in ista questione nihil dicit quod sane intellectum non concedi debeat’. And that’s all: even to Sutton, this view seemed fully acceptable (Cf. Thomas Anglicus, Liber propugnatorius super I Sententiarum contra Johannem Scotum, (Venetiis 1523, reprinted Minerva, Frankfurt, 1966), f. 124vb).

5 Ockham, Guillielmus de Tractates contra Benedictum, Ill, 3, Opera politica, 3 vols., Offler, H. S., Sikes, J. eds. (Manchester 1956-74)Google Scholar (hereinafter OP], III, pp. 233-4: ‘… ad recte intelligendum distinctionem de potentia Dei absoluta et ordinata non intendunt quod in Deo sint diversae potentiae, quarum una est absoluta et alia ordinata, per quarum unam potest Deus aliqua, quae non potest per aliam. Sed intendunt solummodo quod Deus posset aliqua, quae non ordinavit se facturum; quemadmodum posset aliqua faceré, quae non praevidit se facturum, quia non est ea facturas; quae tamen, si faceret, et praeordinasset et praescivisset se facturum … Et ideo, licet potentia Dei sit una, tamen propter diversam locutionem dicitur quod Deus aliqua potest de potentia absoluta, quae tamen numquam faciet de potentia ordinata (hoc est, de facto numquamfaciet): quemadmodum essentia et potentia, et similiter esse et posse, non sunt diversa in Deo, et tamen Deus potest multa, non obstante quod non sint illa multa, quae potest’. See also Summa Logicae, III, 4, cap. 6, ed. Ph. Boehner, G. Gál, S.Brown, Opera philosophica et theologica [hereinafter OPT], I (St. Bonaventure 1974), pp. 779-80; Opus XC Dierum, cap. 95, OP II, especially p. 727.

6 See also Reportata Parisiensia, I, d. 44, q. un., ed. C. Balic, XVII, p. 535; Oakley, F., ‘Jacobean Political Theology: The Absolute and Ordinary Powers of the King’, Journal of the History of Ideas 29 (1968), pp. 323–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Courtenay, The Dialectic’.

7 Ockham, Guillielmus de, Quodlibeta septem, VI, q. I, ed. Wey, J. C., OPT IX, (St. Bonaventure 1980), p. 586Google Scholar, at the close of his well-known definition of potentia absoluta, ends by saying: ‘Sicut papa non potest aliquid secundum iura statuta ab eo, quae tamen absolute potest’. I could not find any other case, but the one of Quodlibet VI, where Ockham applies the distinction to a creature; and even in this case, Ockham seems to me rather stressing the contingent stability of the order, than the papal power of changing it. Furthermore, it could be useful to recall that the question of poverty was indeed based on the claim of John XXII towards a reconsideration of the iura statuta by his predecessor Nicholas. Contra, Moonan, ‘St. Thomas on Divine Power’, in Atti del Congresso Intemazionale per il VII centenario di san Tommaso, (Rome-Naples 1974), III pp. 366-407, p. 403: but unfortunately he does not provide any reference. Courtenay, The Dialectic’, pp. 255-6, with whose opinion here I disagree, refers only to the Quodlibet VI; yet he also claims (p. 256): ‘Ockham would never have applied the distinction to the papacy if he thought it would encourage absolutist behaviour’. On this point, see also McGrade, , The political thought of William of Ockham (London-New York 1974), p. 199 n. 65CrossRefGoogle Scholar: ‘Ockham accused John XXII of denying the distinction between God’s potentia absoluta and potentia ordinata … but not in a political context. To my knowledge, Ockham’s single use of the term potentia absoluta in connection with papal power was in his first formulation of the thesis of extreme papalism, in the Contra Benedictum … The absoluta/ordinata distinction does not correspond at all well with Ockham’s distinction between regular and casual power. To name but an important difference, Ockham denied that it was within the pope’s own discretion whether to use its casual power’. Note that when Ockham speaks of an absolute power of the pope, generally he is referring his opponents’ position, with which he disagrees; see e.g. Dialogus de potatale papae et imperatoris, III, 1,1, cap. 16, in Goldast, , MonarchiaeS. Romani Imperii, II (Francofordiae, Hoffmann, 1614 reprinted Turin) 1959 p. 785)Google Scholar: ‘Ilia sententia tenet, quod papa talem plenitudinem potestatis in temporalibus et spiritualibus, ut omnia per potentiam vel absolutam possit, quae non sunt contra ius divinum nee contra ius naturae, non habet regulariter et simpliciter neque a iure divino, neque humano, sed ex ordinatione Christi, sive iure divino habet casualiter, sive in casu et secundum quid huiusmodi plenitudinem potestatis’. On the papalists’ use of the distinctione, see below, n. 9.

8 , Cf. Quodlibeta Magiari Henrici Goethals a Gandavo doctoris solemnis, XI (Paris 1518)Google Scholar, f. 440r.

9 See Marrone, J., ‘The Absolute and Ordained Powers of the Pope: A Quodlibetal Question of Henry of Ghent’, Mediaeval Studies 35 (1974), pp. 727, p. 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the identification between potentia absoluta and plenitudo potestatis of the pope, see my ‘La vergine e il papa. Potentia absoluta e plenitudo potestatis papale nel XIV secolo’, History of Political thought 5 (1984), pp. 425-45. Many philosophers in the fourteenth century used that parallelism; see e.g. Romanus, Aegidius, De ecclesiastica potestate, III, 7, ed. Scholz, R. (Weimar 1929), p. 181Google Scholar; Montepuellarum, Conradus de (Megenberg), Oeconomica, ed. Krüger, S., MGH Staatschríften, 111 (Stuttgart 1973-7), pp. 53–3Google Scholar; de’ Canistris, Opicinus, De praeeminentia spiritualis imperii, ed. Scholz, R., Unbekannte politischen Streischriften aus der Zeit L. des Bayerns, II (Rome 1914), p. 97Google Scholar; Godino, Guillielmus Petri de, Tractatus de causa immediata ecclesiasticae potestalis, ed. in McCready, W., The Theory of Papal Monarchy in the XIVth Century (Toronto 1982), pp. 7 fGoogle Scholar. See the testimony of John XXII, sermon Deus autem rex nosier ante saecula operatus est salutem, Paris BN MS lat. 3290, fols. 67va-69rb, quoted in my ‘La vergine e il papa’. I am going to publish the whole sermon in Medioevo. Rivista di Storia della filosofia medievale. On the parallelism between God’s and papal power of bypassing natural causes, see e.g. Viterbio, Jacobus de, De regimine christiano, ed. Arquilliere, F. (Paris 1926), IX, p. 273Google Scholar (cf. also his Quodl. 1, q. 2. ed. Ypma [above n. 2], p. 17, p. 35). Augustinus Triumphus, Summa de ecclesiastica potestate, q. 43, 3 and Wilks, M.J., The Problem of Sovereignty in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge 1963), p. 424Google Scholar; McCready, W. D., ‘The Problem of the Empire in Augustinus Triumphus and late Medieval Papal Hierocratic Theory’, Traditio 29 (1972), pp. 325–49, p. 331 e n. 22)Google Scholar; Scildis, Hermannus de, Tractatus contra Haereticos, II, 12, ed. Zumkeller, A. (Wurzburg 1970), p. 88Google Scholar; again Romanus, Aegidius, De potestate ecclesiastica, ed. Scholz, R., (Weimar 1929)Google Scholar III, 9-10 (see McCready, W. D., ‘Papal Plenitudo Potestatis and the Source of Temporal Authority in Late Medieval Papal Hierocratic Theory’, in Speculum 48 (1973), pp. 655–74, p. 673–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mariani, U., Chiesa e Stato nei teologi agostiniani del secolo XIV (Rome 1957), esp. pp. 141–2).Google Scholar

10 Novocastro, Hugo de, Quaestiones in I Sententiarum I, d. 42Google Scholar, q. 2 (I am quoting from the text I have prepared for edition—forthcoming as Appendix of my study II Sovrano e l’Orologiaio. Due immagini di Dio nel dibattito sulla potentia Dei absoluta fra XIII e XIV secolo (Firenze, La Nuova Italia)—on the basis of the three extant MSS: BN lat. 15864, Firenze Laur. Plut. 30 dext. 2, Gdansk Bibl. 1969): ‘Ufrum deus per omnipotentiam suam posset totum mundum adnihilare … Ad evidentiam huius questionis, primo distinguo de potentia divina, secundo descendam ad questionem. De primo sciendum quod licet potentia divina sit una secundum rem, potest tamen distingui tripliciter secundum rationem in potentiam absolutam, ordinabilem et ordinatam. Potentia absoluta dicitur que respicit omne possibile quod contradictionem non includit. Eadem secundum rem dicitur ordinabilis secundum illud quod contradictionem non includit, et habet rationem sapientialem in deo secundum quam si fieret bene fieret. Eadem autem dicitur ordinata quia est determinata per aliquam rationem sapientialem libere tamen ad faciendum hoc determinate et non illud. Exemplum potest poni in nobis et patet.

Hiis visis descendo ad questionem secundum istam divisionem, et distinguo tria, primo quod deus de potentia absoluta posset mundum adnihilare, ratio huius, quia de potentia absoluta deus potest quidquid non includit contradictionem, sed mundum non esse non includit contradictionem … de potentia ordinata deus non posset mundum adnihilare, ratio est quia de potentia ordinata deus non potest facere contra determinationem sue voluntatis … edam de potentia ordinabili deus posset hoc, illud enim potest deus de potentia ordinabili quod contradictionem non includit et habet aliquam rationem sapienrialem secundum quam si poneretur in esse bonum fieret, patet ex dicris, sed mundum non esse nullam contradictionem includit, ut ostensum est, et hoc habet in deo aliquam rationem sapientialem sufficientem puta propter peccata creaturarum intellectualium—vel aliam rationem que nobis est ignota, deo autem nota, ergo etc’

11 Mayrone, Franciscus de (Meyronnes), Super IVor Sententiarum, I, d. 43, q. 6, dub. 2 (Venice 1520)Google Scholar, f. 137ra-b: ‘Utrum sit in Deo distinguere tertiam potentiam ab istis… Potest dici quod sic, sicut yidemus quod aliqua potest de potentia ordinata actuali determinatione habita, aliqua de potentia absoluta, aliqua vero de potentia ordinabili. Tamen forte nihil continetur in potentia divina virtualiter quin illud sit ordinabile et sic secunda et tertia non videntur distingui, nisi dicatur quod absoluta potentia dicatur ilia, ut prescindit ab ordinata; alia autem tertia dicatur absoluta cum ilia ordinante’.

12 Atarrabia, Petrus de, Scriptum in primum senlenliarum, ed. Azcona, P. Sagues II, (Madrid 1974), pp. 980–1Google Scholar: ‘… agens per intellectum et voluntatem potest secundum regulam rectam agere et non agere; sed si huiusmodi agens subiiciatur legi, et agit secundum earn, dicitur agere ordinate; et potentia ad istum actum dicitur ordinata potentia. Si agit contra earn vel praeter earn, dicitur agere inordinate, et potentia ad istum actum dicitur inordinata. Si autem agens non sit subiectum legi, licet agat praeter ipsam, non dicitur agere inordinate. Posse vero de potentia absoluta dupliciter dicitur vel quia potest agere praeter omnem legem, vel quia potest agere praeter unam, non agendo praeter aliam…

Et sic dico quod quidquid Deus agit circa creaturam, ordinate agit, quia ipse nulli legi est subiectus; nullus enim sibi potest statuere legem … Deum autem posse agere de potentia absoluta dupliciter potest intelligi: uno modo possit agere praeter omnem legem, et sic Deus non potest aliquid de potentia absoluta quia hoc dicit imperfectionem. Alio modo, quod possit agere praeter unam legem ab ipso instirutam, ita tamen quod agat secundum aliam quam ipse posset statuere, et sic dicitur quod potest aliquid de potentia absoluta … est quoddam iustum legale, quoddam sententiale. lustum legale est de universalibus, et illud est semper maior in syllogismo practico, lustum sententiale est de parricularibus, et est conclusio syllogismi practici, sumpta minore in particulari sub maiore, quae est iustum legale. Exemplum: statutum est quod qui furatus fuerit 13 ‘parisienses’ suspendatur. Istud, sic universaliter acceptum, dicitur iustum legale. Tunc, accepta minore, concludetur iusrum sententiale sic: quicumque furatus fuerit 13 ‘parienses’, suspendatur; iste, puta Sortes, furatus fuit 13 ‘parisienses’; ergo Sortes suspendatur. Ad propositum dico quod Deus agit secundum iustitiam legalem et secundum iustum sententiale. Ulterius dico quod Deus potest mutare iudicium sententiale, stante iudicio legali. Exemplum: accipiatur ista: ‘qui peccat mortali ter est damnandus; sed Petrus peccavit mortaliter’ … sed Deus praevenit conclusionem, scilicet ‘ergo Petrus est damnandus’, dando Petro gratiam per quam a peccato resurgat et per quam in bono finaliter perseveret…’.

13 The research from which this paper arises has been possible thanks to the contribution of the Università degli Studi di Milano, Dipartimento di Filosofia, and I am very grateful for it especially to Professor Arrigo Pacchi. My research is part of a larger one, directed by Professor Mariateresa Fumagalli Beonio-Brocchieri, to whom I am greatly indebted for many kind suggestions.