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7 - Breed and gender differences in dog behavior
- from PART II - BEHAVIOR, COGNITION AND TRAINING
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- By Benjamin L. Hart, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA, Lynette A. Hart, Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- Edited by James Serpell, University of Pennsylvania
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- Book:
- The Domestic Dog
- Published online:
- 30 December 2016
- Print publication:
- 08 December 2016, pp 118-132
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Summary
Introduction
Dogs are absolutely unique among domestic animals in their association with human caregivers. For one thing, their history with us over evolutionary time is the longest of any domestic species. Secondly, they display an almost unbelievable degree of morphological and behavioral diversity – diversity due almost entirely to their association with humans. Over the centuries, as dogs have been bred for various physical attributes, they have also undergone a variety of changes in behavior. Some breeds have been selected for behavioral changes that are useful in hunting, such as pointing at game birds, chasing foxes while vocalizing, or retrieving waterfowl shot by hunters. In other breeds, behavior associated with the performance of complex tasks, such as herding sheep, has been accentuated. These particular behavior functions that have come to characterize the different breeds of dogs are the outcome of the suppression or enhancement of existing “native” canine behavioral characteristics, rather than the emergence of new behavior patterns (Scott & Fuller, 1965; Lord et al., Chapter 4).
This chapter represents a revised, updated and extended version of a previous review (Hart, 1995) of behavioral differences among 56 popular dog breeds (Hart & Hart, 1985; 1988; Hart & Miller, 1985). Here we report some of the main findings using a new data set involving 80 breeds based on breed rankings derived from telephone interviews with 168 small animal veterinarians.
Extensive research on the canine genome has laid the groundwork for investigations of behavioral differences among breeds that may be related to differences in breed-specific genomes. A particularly useful study with regard to understanding behavioral differences and similarities among breeds of dogs is one that used microsatellite DNA markers to study genetic relationships among 85 breeds (Parker et al., 2004). The same technique was subsequently extended and refined (Parker et al., 2007, 2010). These analyses reveal that almost all dog breeds are genetically distinct and that some can be grouped according to genetic similarity. These genetically similar breed groups provided a means to determine whether the observed breed differences in behavior in the present study had at least some genetic basis.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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14 - Feline behavioural problems and solutions
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- By Benjamin L. Hart, University of California-Davis, Lynette A. Hart, University of California-Davis
- Edited by Dennis C. Turner, Patrick Bateson, University of Cambridge
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- Book:
- The Domestic Cat
- Published online:
- 05 December 2013
- Print publication:
- 21 November 2013, pp 201-212
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Summary
Introduction
Over the last decade or so, cats have moved into the position as the most common companion animal. The reasons are fairly obvious: they are known for being fastidious in eliminative behaviour – no necessity to take them on walks for elimination; they cuddle up next to us as we sit on the sofa; they can welcome visitors and they can even take care of the occasional vermin problem, should one arise. Cats have become ever more intimate family members, and they are an important source of emotional support for human family members. They provide ‘affection and unconditional love’ (Zasloff & Kidd, 1994). This is important for people who are depressed or isolated from others, those with special needs such as those restricted to a bed, and those caring for another person in a demanding role such as caring for a relative with Alzheimer’s (Hart et al., 2006).
The onset of a behaviour problem that interferes with the emotional support role of an otherwise loving cat, or even makes the cat intolerable to keep in the home, is particularly tragic. Fortunately, many behaviour problems that put the human–animal bond aspect of a companion cat at risk can be resolved or even prevented. The most serious of the problems is house soiling and this constitutes the most frequent category of behavioural problems in cats for which cat experts are consulted. Problems centring around aggressive behaviour are not as frequent as with dogs, but can become serious at times. A common problem for many cat owners is furniture scratching. Cats are increasingly kept indoors nowadays, especially in the USA and in urban areas, and eating house plants can be an issue both for the owners, who do not want their indoor garden messed up, and others whose cat may munch on a house plant or two that is poisonous.
11 - Breed and gender behaviour differences: relation to the ancient history and origin of the domestic cat
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- By Benjamin L. Hart, University of California-Davis, Lynette A. Hart, University of California-Davis, Leslie A. Lyons, University of California-Davis
- Edited by Dennis C. Turner, Patrick Bateson, University of Cambridge
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- Book:
- The Domestic Cat
- Published online:
- 05 December 2013
- Print publication:
- 21 November 2013, pp 155-166
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Summary
When going through the adoption process for a new puppy there is typically a focus on breed identification with an eye on what to expect when the dog grows up in terms of behaviour as well as body shape and size. Talk to someone who is thinking of adopting a kitten and typically little attention is given to breed or breed composition. Instead, thought is given to hair coat length, colour and pattern along with a concern about an appropriate place from which to adopt a kitten (Karsh & Turner, 1988).
The overwhelming practice in selecting a kitten is to adopt a generic type, commonly referred to as a domestic shorthair (DSH) or longhair (DLH). It appears as though not much thought is given to the behavioural profile of the cat as an adult. The logic seems to be ‘a cat is just a cat’. In other words, you get what you get. Contrast that with someone who adopts a Jack Russell Terrier dog knowing that the behaviour – reactive and snappy – will be quite different from the Golden Retriever they had before.
Puppy adopters commonly select a breed based on what they expect in the way of behaviour as the puppy grows up; knowing the breed, one can predict the future behaviour to some extent (Hart & Hart, 1985, 1988). While people adopting kittens do not seem to consider the future behaviour of the kitten, they are certainly affected by the behaviour of their cat as adulthood is reached. The behaviours that many cat caregivers find desirable include being affectionate towards the human family members and socially outgoing; and you can add in being good at litter box use. Behaviours that are universally undesirable are being aggressive towards human family members, overly fearful of visitors and urine marking in the house. What astute cat people realise is that some behavioural differences among cats are genetically based. And, when it comes to purebred cats, there are striking differences in behaviour – at least between some breeds – as there are in dogs.
3 - Normal and problematic reproductive behaviour in the domestic cat
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- By Benjamin L. Hart, University of California-Davis, Lynette A. Hart, University of California-Davis
- Edited by Dennis C. Turner, Patrick Bateson, University of Cambridge
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- Book:
- The Domestic Cat
- Published online:
- 05 December 2013
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- 21 November 2013, pp 27-36
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Summary
Of all domestic animals, cats are the most capable of breeding, giving birth to offspring and raising their young without human care or intervention. In the classic example, a mother cat that has secretly gone through parturition in some obscure location reveals a litter of perfectly healthy kittens to the human family members after the kittens have been born. This romanticised view of feline motherhood has given way to the more formalised cattery operation, or the family breeder where a mother cat may give birth to her litter of kittens in the midst of an overly concerned family audience.
In this chapter, following some general information about parturition and the care of newborn, normal maternal behaviour is discussed along with comments about problems with various aspects of maternal behaviour. Problems with maternal behaviour manifest themselves primarily as either lack of proper attention to the kittens, resulting in inadequate care and nutrition, or cannibalism of the kittens. Of course, a necessary aspect of reproduction is the mating, which in this chapter is dealt with mostly in the context of intentional mating of females with selected males, in a home or cat-breeding facility.
List of contributors
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- By Nazia M. Alam, Enrico Alleva, Hiroyuki Arakawa, Robert H. Benno, Fred G. Biddle, D. Caroline Blanchard, Robert J. Blanchard, Richard J. Bodnar, John D. Boughter, Igor Branchi, Richard E. Brown, Abel Bult-Ito, Jonathan M. Cachat, Peter R. Canavello, Francesca Cirulli, Giovanni Colacicco, John C. Crabbe, Jacqueline N. Crawley, Wim E. Crusio, Sietse F. de Boer, Ekrem Dere, Brenda A. Eales, Robert T. Gerlai, Howard K. Gershenfeld, Thomas J. Gould, Martin E. Hahn, Peter C. Hart, Andrew Holmes, Joseph P. Huston, Allan V. Kalueff, Benjamin Kest, Robert Lalonde, Sarah R. Lewis-Levy, Hans-Peter Lipp, Sheree F. Logue, Stephen C. Maxson, Jeffrey S. Mogil, Douglas A. Monks, Dennis L. Murphy, Lee Niel, Timothy P. O’Leary, Susanna Pietropaolo, Peter K.D. Pilz, Claudia F. Plappert, Bernard Possidente, Glen T. Prusky, Laura Ricceri, Heather Schellinck, Herbert Schwegler, Burton Slotnick, Frans Sluyter, Shad B. Smith, Catherine Strazielle, Douglas Wahlsten, Hans Welzl, James F. Willott, David P. Wolfer, Armin Zlomuzica
- Edited by Wim E. Crusio, Université de Bordeaux, Frans Sluyter, Robert T. Gerlai, University of Toronto, Susanna Pietropaolo, Université de Bordeaux
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- Book:
- Behavioral Genetics of the Mouse
- Published online:
- 05 May 2013
- Print publication:
- 25 April 2013, pp ix-xii
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Contributors
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- By James Ahn, Eric L. Anderson, Annette L. Beautrais, Dennis Beedle, Jon S. Berlin, Benjamin L. Bregman, Peter Brown, Suzie Bruch, Jonathan Busko, Stuart Buttlaire, Laurie Byrne, Gerald Carroll, Valerie A. Carroll, Margaret Cashman, Joseph R. Check, Lara G. Chepenik, Robert N. Cuyler, Preeti Dalawari, Suzanne Dooley-Hash, William R. Dubin, Mila L. Felder, Avrim B. Fishkind, Reginald I. Gaylord, Rachel Lipson Glick, Travis Grace, Clare Gray, Anita Hart, Ross A. Heller, Amanda E. Horn, David S. Howes, David C. Hsu, Andy Jagoda, Margaret Judd, John Kahler, Daryl Knox, Gregory Luke Larkin, Patricia Lee, Jerrold B. Leikin, Eddie Markul, Marc L. Martel, J. D. McCourt, MaryLynn McGuire Clarke, Mark Newman, Anthony T. Ng, Barbara Nightengale, Kimberly Nordstrom, Jagoda Pasic, Jennifer Peltzer-Jones, Marcia A. Perry, Larry Phillips, Paul Porter, Seth Powsner, Michael S. Pulia, Erin Rapp, Divy Ravindranath, Janet S. Richmond, Silvana Riggio, Harvey L. Ruben, Derek J. Robinson, Douglas A. Rund, Omeed Saghafi, Alicia N. Sanders, Jeffrey Sankoff, Lorin M. Scher, Louis Scrattish, Richard D. Shih, Maureen Slade, Susan Stefan, Victor G. Stiebel, Deborah Taber, Vaishal Tolia, Gary M. Vilke, Alvin Wang, Michael A. Ward, Joseph Weber, Michael P. Wilson, James L. Young, Scott L. Zeller
- Edited by Leslie S. Zun
- Edited in association with Lara G. Chepenik, Mary Nan S. Mallory
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- Book:
- Behavioral Emergencies for the Emergency Physician
- Published online:
- 05 April 2013
- Print publication:
- 21 March 2013, pp viii-xii
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Issues of taxonomy and comorbidity in the development of conduct disorder
- Stephen P. Hinshaw, Benjamin B. Lahey, Elizabeth L. Hart
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- Journal:
- Development and Psychopathology / Volume 5 / Issue 1-2 / Winter-Spring 1993
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 31 October 2008, pp. 31-49
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A developmental approach to the classification of antisocial behavior is necessary for two reasons. First, although the continuity of antisocial behavior is strong for many individuals, the topography of antisocial behavior changes during the course of development. Second, antisocial behavior apparently develops in at least two separate pathways — child-onset versus adolescent-onset — that differ markedly regarding types of antisocial behavior displayed, persistence, and perhaps etiology. The development of antisocial behavior must also be understood within the context of co-occurring disorders and conditions. Comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder appears to be associated with greater aggression and a worse prognosis, and comorbid academic underachievement is also associated with a negative course. Emerging evidence also suggests that comorbid anxiety disorder is associated with level of aggression, but the direction of the correlation appears to differ at different ages. In all, full understanding of conduct disorder requires developmentally sensitive classification as well as consideration of comorbid conditions.