174 results
8 - The post-pandemic provision of education in the United Kingdom
- Edited by Patrick Allen, Suzanne J. Konzelmann, Birkbeck College, University of London, Jan Toporowski, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
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- The Return of the State
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 22 December 2023
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- 29 April 2021, pp 95-110
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Summary
Education in England has been increasingly privatized. The result has not been good. It has not produced a better educational service. When international comparisons are made this becomes painfully clear. It has not become more efficient, because of a proliferation of private nursey classes, the academization of state schools, all new schools being free schools, university student number competition, and so on; it has not resulted in young people in England becoming more able – although it may have persuaded many to believe that they are very able and very clever despite not being able to speak and write in as many languages as children can do elsewhere in Europe – nor to show imaginative ability in mathematics and science (as well as many other subjects), as other young people in Europe can demonstrate when international comparisons are made.
Figure 8.1 gives a summary of the problem. It shows results for mathematics, but much the same can be seen for reading and problem solving. It uses data from 2012, as the repeat OECD organized international surveys taken in 2015 and 2018 did not measure ability up to age 24 but only around age 16. Schools in the United Kingdom are quite good at priming young people to produce an expected answer at age 16 or 18. However, by age 24 a great deal of what was taught in a UK school has been forgotten (greater than is the case in most other European countries, as Figure 8.1 makes clear).
As the figure implies, this may be related to economic inequality. The higher the economic inequality in a country, the worse the real educational performance.
What Figure 8.1 shows is not that economic inequality directly causes poor educational outcomes, but that a country such as the United Kingdom, which has become so economically unequal in recent decades, will tend to move in the direction of other very unequal countries, such as the United States. In contrast, in more equitable countries, such as Japan, Sweden, the Netherlands and Denmark, education at school is carried out in such a way that, when young adults are later tested in their early twenties, they are still – on average – quite competent in mathematics.
7 - World population prospects at the UN: our numbers are not our problem?
- Edited by Christopher Deeming, University of Strathclyde
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- Book:
- The Struggle for Social Sustainability
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
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- 14 April 2023
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- 28 April 2021, pp 129-154
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Introduction
Human population growth is slowing dramatically, and it is slowing because people are having fewer and fewer babies as compared to their parents, everywhere, without exception. More importantly, they are having fewer than we thought they would have a few years ago when the fertility rates were already reducing dramatically and unprecedentedly. Our species has never, ever had so few children. The reason why the total human population of the planet will keep on growing for 50 or 60 or 70 years, but almost certainly not for 80 years, is because people are living longer. It is now no longer because we are having more children.
‘The smaller generation to come – â¯worldwide’
On Monday 17 June 2019 the United Nations (UN) revealed momentous news. The world did not notice, but soon it will. The headline of the UN report (prepared by the Population Division, Box 7.1) read ‘9.7 billion on Earth by 2050, but growth rate slowing’.
Box 7.1: The United Nations Population Division
The Division was established in the early years of the United Nations to serve as the Secretariat of the then Population Commission, created in 1946. Over the years, it has played an active role in the intergovernmental dialogue on population and development, producing constantly updated demographic estimates and projections for all countries, including data essential for the monitoring of progress in achieving the MDGs and now the SDGs, developing and disseminating new methodologies, leading the substantive preparations for the major United Nations conferences on population and development as well as the annual sessions of the Commission on Population and Development. It studies population dynamics and monitors demographic trends and policies worldwide. Population estimates and projections prepared by the Division for all countries on fertility, mortality, international migration, urbanization and population size and structure are widely used by all international bodies. The 2019 Revision of World Population Prospects is the twenty-sixth round of official United Nations population estimates and projections that have been prepared by the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs at the United Nations (UN DESA Population Division, 2019).
Source: UN Population Division, www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/about/index.asp (Reproduced with the permission of the United Nations.)
4 - Childhood and education
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 75-98
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Summary
“In Finland, where children don't start primary school before they are 7 years old, the government requires that all children must be given opportunities to play, have a voice in what and how they will learn, and must have at least 1 hour for physical activity every day, mostly outside, in addition to physical educational classes.”
Pasi Sahlberg and William Doyle (2019)Introduction: improving upon the best
According to the economist and Nobel laureate James Heckman, investment in children produces a high return, benefiting not only the immediate family and child, but society as a whole (Center for High Impact Philanthropy 2015). In 1951 the future of Finland was predicted to be “grey and dreary”, but the Finns were tenacious (Sletholt 1951: 126). More importantly than that, they eventually chose the right route to trudge determinedly along.
Finland's postwar recovery and its capacity to establish itself as a serious country depended on the transformation of its (now world-renowned) education system. Alongside providing sufficient support for parents, good housing and high-quality healthcare, education is one of the most important investments in society that a government can make to ensure both the productivity and the well-being of future generations. Politicians such as former Prime Minister Jyrki Katainen of the National Coalition Party have emphasized the role of a highly educated society in promoting global competitiveness (Nygård 2015: 153–4). However, such aspirations may fall short if they are not accompanied by policies that also invest well in public services and education funding.
The frequency with which Finland is acclaimed as the best in the world for education does not mean that it cannot improve further, nor that some of its politicians won't squander that success in the future. Educational mobility is a measure of the degree to which the education system of a country increases or decreases the importance of parental finances and parental power in determining a child's future. Figure 4.1 shows the performance of countries in terms of the social mobility they have achieved and their levels of income inequality, with both factors shown to be influenced by levels of educational mobility within each country.
Appendix: Finland among the best in the world
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 249-256
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Summary
Statistics Finland produces a handy annual list of areas in which Finland is deemed to excel. It was last fully updated on 5 December 2018, although a few more items were added on 6 December 2019. The source for all the claims found below can be found in the update: http://www.stat.fi/tup/ tilastokirjasto/itsenaisyyspaiva-2019_en.html, and in the original list: http:// www.stat.fi/tup/satavuotias-suomi/suomi-maailman-karjessa_en.html.
Finland is a small country on a global scale. It accounts for just 0.07 per cent of both the world's total population and exactly the same global share of its total land area. But even a small country can jump to the top of the world, and this is what Finland has done: in international country comparisons of positive things, Finland is often among the top countries next to other Nordic countries.
In honour of Finland's centenary celebrations, Statistics Finland collected a list of comparisons in which Finland is one of the best in the world. The list was last updated on 5 December 2018, when Finland was for the last day one hundred years old.
Society
• Finland is the most stable country in the world.
• Finland is the safest country in the world.
• Finland is the fourth “best” country in the world. (The Good Country Index).
• Finland had the best governance in the world in 2018 (and ranked second best in 2019).
• Finland's police and internal security as a whole are the second best in the world.
• Finland has the lowest level of organized crime in the world.
• Next to Norwegians and Icelanders, Finns are the second least insecure-feeling people in the world.
• Finland's judicial system is the most independent in the world.
• After the Danes, Finns’ elections are the freest and most reliable in the world.
• Finland has the third lowest level of corruption in the world.
• Finland is the third most prosperous country in the world.
• Protection of property rights in Finland is the best in the world.
• Access to official information in Finland is the best in the EU.
• Finnish banks are the soundest in the world.
• Finland's pension system is the third-best in the world (in a field of 34 countries).
• Finland has the third highest levels of personal freedom and choice in the world.
Dedication
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp vii-viii
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Preface – Onnen maa (The land of happiness)
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp xv-xviii
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Summary
In a little over half a century, Finland has become one of the most equitable countries in the world. It is the country with the best life chances for children, and the happiest people. What makes Finland so successful? To what extent is bold social policy key to that success? Or is it because of the growth of a shared belief in the well-being of everyone – and, if so, what role has its recent history played in the rise of that belief? Finland is just as subject to the vicissitudes of globalization and environmental threats as other affluent countries, but today it often confronts these problems better than almost all others and appears to be incredibly robust. We believe that it is time to take a close look at what other countries can learn from Finland.
What drawbacks might there be from so much equality? What are the downsides, if any, to Finntopia? Why haven't more countries achieved what Finland has achieved, and how many have done nearly as well as (or even better than) Finland on one or more aspects of equality – and why? If there are no great disadvantages to the Finnish system, then why don't more people move there or more countries emulate it? Why are there still far-right political parties in a country where life looks – in comparison to the reality for so many people in Britain or the United States – like paradise?
This book begins by acknowledging what almost everyone first mentions: the Finnish winters. And indeed, for many months of the year in Finland, it is very cold. We show that it is not this fact, nor the small size and high homogeneity of Finland's population, that are the underlying reasons for the social equality that exists in Finland today. In the pages that follow, using a huge range of statistics and sources, we explain why it is not Finland's climate, its demographics or its ethnicity that matter. None of those factors made everything that transpired inevitable. In fact, in many cases these factors have been a hindrance to Finland's economic, social and political development.
Frontmatter
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp i-vi
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Part I - The Context
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 1-4
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Summary
In the following three chapters, we look at the context of Finland's achievements. The first chapter focuses on geography and climate, which are issues that invariably arise early on in any conversation about the country. Finland is often described as remote, but remoteness is relative. It very much depends on where you are looking from, and how much more easily (for the affluent at least) everywhere is now connected to everywhere else as compared to how difficult travel was even in the recent past. We begin the chapter with a map that puts Finland at its centre, showing how a large part of the world's surface looks from that vantage point.
Chapter 1 continues by showing just how warm the summers are in Finland and how cold it can be in winter, but also how clear the skies can be and how clean the air is. Outsiders are rarely aware of the large geographical variations in climate across the country. We end our introductory chapter by describing how ancient Finland is, geologically speaking, and how its landscape of lakes and forest includes places where rare elements are found in abundance. Although Finland is one of the places where the effects of global warming are likely to be the least adverse, it is also one of the countries at the forefront of initiatives to reduce, mitigate and adapt to climate change – including, controversially, the building of new nuclear power plants that are due to begin operation in 2020 (Reuters 2019).
The second chapter in this section considers the history of Finland amid the empires that surrounded it and dominated it for so long. We chart how for centuries it was the poorest of nations, and show how its towns and cities grew along with the development of transportation routes between its countless lakes; we detail its many border changes, and speculate on the impact of Finland's past as a colony on the outlook of Finns today.
Our third and final chapter in Part I gives a brief overview of the economy and the welfare system that Finland is so famous for.
Contents
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp ix-x
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5 - Mid-life and equality
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 99-128
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Summary
Onnelllisuus on se paikka puuttuvaisuuden ja yltäkylläisyyden välillä
[Happiness is a place between too little and too much]
Finnish proverbTraditionally, mid-life is hard to define. When does it begin and end? In Finland currently, average life expectancy for men is 79 and for women 84, with both still increasing and the gap between them narrowing. Because of this we have decided here to define mid-life as being aged 21 to 61, the 40 years after the first 21 years of life and before what, for most people, is typically the last 21 years of their lives.
For most of us mid-life begins after the completion of studies and at the start of employment and possible career, after having left the family who brought you up, but before settling down with a family of your own. This stereotype has undergone various changes, but these key points still remain milestones in the average person's life in one way or another. A growing number of people have no children, but for the majority of Finns, mid-life ends when all your children have left home and you are on your own again. It draws to an end as the career or varied set of jobs you have been doing wind down. It ends as retirement approaches or starts and as your life begins to have more and more in common with everyone else in your age group. Equality is greatest in childhood and young adulthood, and again in old age – especially in Finland. Mid-life is a period of specialization and also the time when people tend to be most unequal.
In Finland children are born remarkably equal. As detailed above, a Finnish child's arrival is marked with a very comprehensive maternity package containing things that the baby and its parents actually need. In Finland the government, and the town or village you live in, ensures that your start in life is one of the most equitable on the planet. As explained in the previous chapter, all children in Finland have access to good schools. The influence of your parents’ income on your outcome in mid-life is minimal (when compared to their influence if you grow up anywhere else).
1 - Geography and climate
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 5-24
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Summary
“I’m considering applying for a scholarship to study in Finland. My only hesitation is the six months of darkness. I wonder how that would affect my ability to study, because I tend to think and work better in the early morning when I can watch the sun rise. Given the number of reasons I have to live in Finland, I’m quite surprised at my reaction to the idea of lack of light when it comes to the practicality of living there.”
American woman living in New York City, July 2019“Honestly, I don't find New York City winters that different from ours. The period from October to December is usually very agreeable: sauna, mulled wine, hot chocolate, woolly socks, Christmassy fairy lights, pre-Christmas parties and gift-wrapping. The only taxing bit is January, which is also almost always the coldest month, too. In February the sun begins to shine again, at least for a few hours per day, and reflects off the white snow. In March we start to realize that it's time to wash the windows again and we start looking forward to spring. If you decide to come here, I will buy you a light therapy lamp for a welcoming present; I haven't needed one myself, but many people who find the darkness too dense consider it a useful delight.”
Reply from her friend in Helsinki, August 2019Finland is far away. Unless you are in Finland, in which case it is – very probably – home. Everywhere is a long way from most places. And everywhere is home to someone.
To the east of Finland lies Russia, endless Russia, Russia as far as the mind can imagine and as far as a car or a train can travel in a day, or two, or three (Figure 1.1). It feels as if it has always been Russia over there.
To the south is the rest of Europe, country after country, sea after sea, peoples and languages, so many languages all just needing to be learned and used in the places just waiting to be visited. And no more meaningful borders. Finland is in the European Union and the eurozone.
Part II - Social Policy
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 71-74
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Summary
In this section there are three chapters that cover the human lifespan, discussing issues that most affect people in their youth, mid-life – which we define as ages 21 to 61 – and old age. We discuss childhood and education in the first chapter, general equality in the second, and health in the final chapter of this section.
We begin by demonstrating how Finland's very high levels of income equality for older people are related to high levels of social mobility for the young; and how schools in Finland further accelerate social mobility. Social mobility is easier when the gap between top and bottom is so much narrower than it is in other countries. We show that Finland is second only to Norway in how little money is spent on private schooling and look at how Finland manages to be a world leader in education without spending more overall than many other countries. We also show how Finland has the lowest variation in school outcomes of any OECD country – which partly explains why its educational results are so good. We end by discussing Finland's work opportunities for the young, youth unemployment and higher education.
In Chapter 5, on the middle years of life, we begin by discussing data that confirm that income inequality in Finland has been low for some time and show how this contributes to high levels of social mobility. Of all the countries in the world, only in Denmark does it matter less who your parents are for your prospects in later life. We show that in the workplace Finnish employees of all grades have much greater flexibility over the hours they work than in all of the 35 other OECD countries for which there is data. This is as true for Finns without formal qualifications as for those with university degrees – employees in Finland are the most trusted to determine their own hours of work. We then discuss the paradox of Finland having one of the lowest proportions of women working in jobs that require science, technology, engineering and mathematics qualifications – despite Finland ranking joint highest on the global index of gender equality, which includes how well girls and women do at school and university in general in Finland. We end the chapter by looking at the taxation that keeps inequality low.
7 - Politics and populism
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Book:
- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 161-192
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Summary
“I have lived in a welfare state and am grateful for how society gave me support in the tough times of my life.”
Sanna Marin, just before becoming the world's youngest serving prime minister at 34 years old on 8 December 2019, quoted in de Fresnes (2019)Introduction
In 2019, Finnish politics made international headlines twice. The first time was when the Social Democratic Party won the most votes in the April 2019 general election (The Guardian 2019; Duxbury 2019) and the second was after the prime minister and the Minister for Local Government and Ownership Steering resigned over issues involving a postal strike and his successor, Sanna Marin, became the world's youngest serving prime minister on 10 December 2019 (see Chapter 3). Her appointment meant that the country was governed by a coalition of five female-led parties.
Finland was flatteringly profiled as a hotbed of progressive politics and policies by newspapers such as The Guardian and The New York Times, and by politicians including Hillary Clinton. The hosts for the podcast for the newspaper Helsingin Sanomat, “Uutisraportti”, ended their weekly broadcast on a gleeful note about the attention Finland was attracting in the wake of Marin's appointment. It was unbelievable and exciting, they exclaimed, that William Barr, the US's Donald Trump-appointed attorney general, had asked the visiting Finnish Justice Minister, Anna-Maija Henriksson, for her views on the new prime minister (Peltomaki 2019). Barr wasn't the only American to want to know more about Henriksson's homeland: when she visited a US prison, the inmates asked her about politics in Finland.
Politics is important to the story of Finland's success because effective social policy and the welfare state were the outcome of choices and policies made by government. Of course, Finland's politicians have not always made the right decisions: as we’ve discussed in Chapter 6, lawmakers are still grappling with the thorny issue of social and healthcare reform.
6 - Old age and health
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Book:
- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 129-156
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Summary
“Only the Nordic countries are known for their pared-down simplicity … The Nordic Guide to Living 10 Years Longer applies this ethos to health – and it is important for me to express that to live a healthy life, you do not have to go to extremes. It's the small and simple changes that amount to a happier, healthier life.”
Bertil Marklund, author of The Nordic Guide to Living 10 Years LongerThe secret word
There has been a recent boom in books about how, if you live the Nordic way, you too could live longer. Hundreds of little tips essentially all boil down to an instruction to be more Swedish, more Danish, more Finnish. Each country has its own special word that signifies the secret to success. In Swedish, according to Bertil Marklund, the word is lagom, meaning “just the right amount”. However, in each case we are told that there is no exact translation, and hence an entire book on “the word” is needed for the reader to glean the secrets it holds.
In Denmark the magic word is hygge, meaning an atmosphere of cosiness, closeness and comfortable conviviality, which in turn generates feelings of greater well-being and contentment (Norway has koselig, meaning nearly the same thing, with some subtle differences.) Candles, cushions and closing the door on unwanted intrusions feature heavily in hygge, and wrapping yourself in chunky hand-knitted blankets and indulging in pastries is how the concept was presented to the outside world (Country Life 2017). Inevitably, there is no exact English translation or short definition that quite summarizes the concept correctly.
It is not just the Nordic countries that have received this treatment. In Japan the equivalent concept is ikigai. According to The Times “Forget hygge. It's all about ikigai (that's Japanese for a happy life)” (Country Life 2017; Mogi 2017). Unsurprisingly, the Japanese term also defies translation and requires an entire book to explain it. What none of these books point out are the many similarities between these countries.
References
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 257-288
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Index
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 289-299
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Finntopia
- What We Can Learn from the World's Happiest Country
- Danny Dorling, Annika Koljonen
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- Published by:
- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020
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The 2020 World Happiness Report ranked Finland, for the third year running, as the world's happiest country.
The 'Nordic Model' has long been touted as the aspiration for social and public policy in Europe and North America, but what is it about Finland that makes the country so successful and seemingly such a great place to live?
Is it simply the level of government spending on health, education and welfare? Is it that Finland has one of the lowest rates of social inequality and childhood poverty, and highest levels of literacy and education?
Finland clearly has problems of its own - for example, a high level of gun ownership and high rates of suicide - which can make Finns skeptical of their ranking, but its consistently high performance across a range of well-being indicators does raise fascinating questions.
In the quest for the best of all possible societies, Danny Dorling and Annika Koljonen explore what we might learn from Finnish success.
2 - History amid empires
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Book:
- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 25-44
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Summary
“Only after World War II did the nation experience reconciliation to such an extent that political and ideological debate could be conducted without threat to democracy or fear of retribution. The national healing had progressed sufficiently to accept diversity as a sign of a healthy nation.”
Borje Vahamaki, translator's note, in “Under the North Star 3” (Linna 2003: xii)The land between the powers
To the outside world Finland may not appear particularly diverse, but its own people see things rather differently, particularly when looking at the complex history and shifting politics in the years up to the Second World War. Writing in October 1939, one American media mogul claimed “Stalin is treading on dangerous ground when he attacks Finland […] Finland is the most upright and honest nation in Europe. She is the one nation that has recently paid its duly contracted debts to us. She is the one nation whose word of honor is worth a centime or a farthing. She is the one nation that the United States has reason to respect” (Hearst 1939). It may well have been William Randolph Hearst, the model for the protagonist of Orson Welles’ film Citizen Kane, who helped create the myth of the steadfast, independent-minded, stubborn yet diplomatic character of the Finns.
From the early twelfth century until 1945, Finns were caught in the middle of larger nations’ ambitions and empires: Sweden in the west, Russia in the east, Germany to the south, and with the cold relentlessly sweeping down from the north to add to the drama. Finland was, in effect, controlled by Denmark in the form of the Kalmar Union of Scandinavia aristocracy from 1397 to 1523, ending with Sweden's rebellion. Sweden then ruled Finland more or less uninterrupted until 1809, although at the end of the Great Northern War (1700–21) its grip was perilously weak. From 1809, Russia dominated Finland, invading at times, ruling at others, until independence day, 6 December 1917. During the period 1941–44, Finland was – despite not being run by Nazis – an ally of Germany and reliant on it for imports of food, fuel and armaments. In 1944, however, the Finns turned on Germany, in the Lapland War (September 1944 to April 1945).
8 - Demography and environment
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Book:
- Finntopia
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- Agenda Publishing
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp 193-218
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“I was with the president of Finland and he said ‘we have, much different, we are a forest nation’. He called it a forest nation. And they spend a lot of time on raking and cleaning and doing things, and they don't have any problem. And when it is, it's a very small problem. So I know everybody's looking at that to that end.”
US President Donald Trump in 2018, recalling a conversation he never had about how Finland avoids forest fires (Kelly 2018)Decreasing fertility and the effects of climate emergency are phenomena that all western, developed countries face. On the one hand, a shrinking and greying population risks the future tax base needed to fund government policies. On the other hand, a larger population would almost inevitably use up more of the planet's scarce resources and further intensify climate change. Immigration is proposed as the solution. The previous chapter illustrated the difficulties Finnish politics and society have faced in adapting to immigration, and detailed the populist backlash against multiculturalism. This chapter, on demography and the environment, delves further into how the contradictory need for greater fertility and the certain need for climate action has played out in Europe, as this will significantly affect Finland's capacity to sustain its welfare state at current levels.
Long-term trends in birth and death rates in Finland reflect the country's chequered history. Spikes in the death rate followed major events such as the 1808–09 war between Sweden and Russia, which culminated in Finland being ceded to its eastern neighbour; and in the Finnish famine of 1866–68 some 270,000 people – 9 per cent of the population – died of hunger. The civil war in 1918 that followed Finnish independence from Russia in 1917 led to the deaths of 37,000 people – mostly men in prison camps. There were smaller spikes during the Winter War (1939–40) and the Continuation War (1941–44) against the Soviet Union, when around 96,000 Finns (2.5 per cent of the population) perished. Since 1945, annual death rates have remained low and stable, at 10 per 1,000 population, while in the past few years birth rates have fallen so low that they are now below death rates (see Figure 8.1).
List of tables and figures
- Danny Dorling, University of Oxford, Annika Koljonen
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- Finntopia
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- 20 December 2023
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- 24 September 2020, pp xix-xx
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