11 results
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Contributors
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- By Blair C. Armstrong, David A. Balota, Lawrence W. Barsalou, Jos J. A. Van Berkum, Lera Boroditsky, Gregory A. Bryant, Cristina Cacciari, Joana Cholin, Morten H. Christiansen, Stella Christie, Eve V. Clark, Herbert H. Clark, Eliana Colunga, John F. Connolly, Michael J. Cortese, Seana Coulson, George S. Cree, Christopher M. Crew, Gary S. Dell, Kevin Diependaele, Judit Druks, Thomas A. Farmer, Anne Fernald, Kelly Forbes, Carol A. Fowler, Michael Frank, Stephen J. Frost, Dedre Gentner, Raymond W. Gibbs, Monica Gonzalez-Marquez, Arthur C. Graesser, Jonathan Grainger, Zenzi M. Griffin, Mary Hare, Harlan D. Harris, Marc F. Joanisse, Leonard Katz, Albert Kim, Gina R. Kuperberg, Nicole Landi, Birte Loenneker-Rodman, Danielle S. MacNamara, James S. Magnuson, Ken McRae, W. Einar Mencl, Daniel Mirman, Jennifer B. Misyak, Srini Narayanan, Kate Nation, Randy L. Newman, Lee Osterhout, Roberto Padovani, Karalyn Patterson, Kenneth R. Pugh, Terry Regier, Douglas Roland, Jay G. Rueckl, Vasile Rus, Jenny R. Saffran, Sarah D. Sahni, Arthur G. Samuel, Rebecca Sandak, Dominiek Sandra, Sophie Scott, Mark S. Seidenberg, Linda B. Smith, Michael J. Spivey, Meghan Sumner, Daniel Tranel, Gabriella Vigliocco, Nicole L. Wilson, Anna Woollams
- Edited by Michael Spivey, Ken McRae, University of Western Ontario, Marc Joanisse, University of Western Ontario
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- The Cambridge Handbook of Psycholinguistics
- Published online:
- 05 November 2012
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- 20 August 2012, pp xi-xiv
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Correlation between Charge Contrast Imaging and the Distribution of Some Trace Level Impurities in Gibbsite
- Travis C. Baroni, Brendan J. Griffin, James R. Browne, Frank J. Lincoln
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 6 / Issue 1 / January 2000
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 August 2002, pp. 49-58
- Print publication:
- January 2000
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Charge contrast images (CCI) of synthetic gibbsite obtained on an environmental scanning electron microscope gives information on the crystallization process. Furthermore, X-ray mapping of the same grains shows that impurities are localized during the initial stages of growth and that the resulting composition images have features similar to these observed in CCI. This suggests a possible correlation between impurity distributions and the emission detected during CCI. X-ray line profiles, simulating the spatial distribution of impurities derived from the Monte Carlo program CASINO, have been compared with experimental line profiles and give an estimate of the localization. The model suggests that a main impurity, Ca, is depleted from the solution within approximately 3–4 μm of growth.
3D Reconstructions Using Charge Contrast Imaging
- Travis C Baroni, Brendan J Griffin, Frank J Lincoln
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 5 / Issue S2 / August 1999
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 July 2020, pp. 284-285
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- August 1999
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Three-dimensional reconstructions are a useful visualisation aid for understanding the volumetric relationships between features in an object. Typically, three dimensional reconstructions have evolved with regards to biological applications, where the collection and manipulation of the data has matured to a point where volumetric rendering has become almost routine. Two common data collection procedures involve either virtual sectioning using CLSM, where layers within the object are imaged successively without mechanical sectioning, or alternatively the projection of the object is imaged, via TEM while being rotated through a range of angles. This paper describes a novel application of three dimensional imaging by collecting 2 dimensional serial section images using a recently described technique for imaging materials using a VPSEM, known as Charge Contrast Imaging.
Figure 1 shows a typical image of a polished grain of gibbsite. Previous work has correlated the appearance of the concentric rings to laboratory controlled precipitation events, thus showing the technique provides information on the precipitation history
Spatial Correlation of Elemental Impurities and Charge Contrast Image Detail in Gibbsite
- Travis C Baroni, Brendan J Griffin, Frank J Lincoln
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 5 / Issue S2 / August 1999
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 July 2020, pp. 270-271
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- August 1999
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Charge Contrast Imaging (CCI), is a recently reported technique allowing the imaging of the internal microstructure of non and poorly conductive materials. In previous work, the relationship between controlled growth events in batch-precipitated gibbsite, Al(OH)3 and the appearance of contrasting bands in CCIs has been empirically correlated. The data presented was spatial, based on the number and dimensions of growth rings, however no interpretation of the contrast variation was made. Suggestions that the contrast may be related to charge trapping, which in turn is related to conductivity pathways and impurity concentrations indicates that the technique may provide insight into crystallisation processes. The current work examines the spatial distribution of impurity elements and their effect on the contrast observed within growth layers in charge contrast images of gibbsite.
Analyses for Ca, Fe and Si, the main impurities in the solutions before and after precipitation indicate a preferential partitioning of Ca and to a lesser extent Si and Fe into gibbsite.
Observations on Corynebacterium bovis infection of the bovine mammary gland: I. Natural infection
- Tuula Honkanen-Buzalski, Tony K. Griffin, Frank H. Dodd
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 51 / Issue 3 / August 1984
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 371-378
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- August 1984
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Data from experiments in 55 commercial herds have been examined to study the patterns of Corynebacterium bovis infection. Such infections are most common in herds that are not subjected to regular control methods but their commercial significance appears to be small. In herds using teat disinfection and dry cow therapy levels of infection with this organism are low. There is no evidence from these data to suggest that C. bovis infections protect the udder against invasion by a major pathogen. On the contrary these infections do not persist when major pathogens invade.
Chemical characterization of milk concentrated by ultrafiltration
- Margaret L. Green, K. John Scott, Malcolm Anderson, Mary C. A. Griffin, Frank A. Griffin
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 51 / Issue 2 / May 1984
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 267-278
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- May 1984
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Whole milks concentrated 1·5–4-fold and acidified and citrated milks concentrated 2·8-fold by ultrafiltration at 50 °C were analysed for chemical changes relevant to further processing, storage or nutrition. Fat and protein were entirely retained in the concentrate. The retention of water-soluble vitamins, Ca, Mg, phosphate and trace minerals depended on the proportion bound to the protein. Ascorbic acid was rapidly destroyed during concentration. Because of the differential retention of nitrogenous components, protein comprised a progressively higher proportion of the total N as the milk became more concentrated. No denaturation of whey protein or disruption of casein micelles was detected during concentration of whole milk, but some solubilization of the casein occurred after citration. Reduction of fat globule size occurred early in the concentration process, damage to the fat globule membrane was indicated and the milk became more susceptible to lipolysis. Apart from a tendency for preacidified or precitrated concentrates to gel, no change in the susceptibility of the milks to heat damage was detected.
Use of deflector shields to reduce intramammary infection by preventing impacts on the teat ends of cows during machine milking
- Tony K. Griffin, Ray L. Williams, Robert J. Grindal, Frank K. Neave, David R. Westgarth
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 50 / Issue 4 / November 1983
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 397-404
- Print publication:
- November 1983
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A series of short duration experiments has shown that infections caused by the milking machine or the way in which it is used can be controlled by fitting deflector shields in the teatcup liners. This not only provides a simple means of controlling such infections, but demonstrates that they result from penetration of the streak canal of the teat by contaminated milk particles impacting on the teat ends.
Effect of the method of removal of the milking machine cluster on new udder infection
- Tony K. Griffin, Robert J. Grindal, Ray L. Williams, Frank K. Neave, David R. Westgarth
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 49 / Issue 3 / August 1982
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 361-367
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- August 1982
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A series of short duration experiments show that the way in which the milking machine cluster is removed from the udder influences the rate at which new udder infections occur when bacterial exposure is high at the end of milking. Shields fitted in the base of the liners controlled most of the infections caused by abrupt removal of the cluster.
Effect of deflector shields fitted in the milking machine teatcup liner on bovine udder disease
- Tony K. Griffin, Graeme A. Mein, David R. Westgrath, Frank K. Neave, William H. Thompson, Peter D. Maguire
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 47 / Issue 1 / February 1980
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 1-9
- Print publication:
- February 1980
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Deflector shields were inserted in the teatcup to prevent ‘impacts’ against the teat end, and their effect on the rate of new udder infections was studied on 15 commercial dairy farms in Britain and 16 in Australia. Small metal shields were fitted between the liner barrel and short milk tube of 2 teatcups in each cluster in a milking installation so that all cows in a herd always had the same 2 quarters shielded. Half-udder comparisons were made using 1039 cows in the British herds and 1268 in the Australian herds. Herds were quarter-sampled for cytological and bacteriological examination when shields were fitted at the start of the experiment and again after 6 months. The shield effects were similar in the 2 experiments. The combined results from the 31 farms showed that 10·5% fewer quarters became infected when protected by shields (P < 0·05). In the 1287 cows that had no infected quarters at the start of the trial, 15% fewer quarters became infected when protected by shields (P < 0·01). The shield effect was mainly confined to hind quarters in which 23% fewer shielded quarters became infected (P < 0·001). The small reduction of 2% in forequarters was not significant. In the 16 herds in which post-milking disinfection of teats was practised, shielded quarters had 23·5% fewer new infections than unshielded quarters (P < 0·01). In 6 British herds milked in installations classed as non-standard, shielded quarters had almost 50% fewer new infections than the unshielded quarters (0·05 < P < 0·10). The results provide evidence of a milking machine effect, at varying levels of intensity, to increase new infection rates on all or most farms. Control of this machine effect could lead to substantial reduction in new infections in some herds and a modest reduction in most.
The Effect of Grating Blaze Angle on the Diffraction Efficiency of Ultrasoft X-Ray Radiation
- James B. Nicholson, C. Frank Mooney, Gordon L. Griffin
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- Journal:
- Advances in X-ray Analysis / Volume 8 / 1964
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 06 March 2019, pp. 301-314
- Print publication:
- 1964
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Spectrum analysis in the ultrasoft X-ray region is complicated by the fact that this radiation is almost totally absorbed in any medium. This has necessitated spectrometer components which minimize this effect. Nondispersive and total reflection techniques, though high in speed, lack good resolution and in the case of the latter, are usually restricted to analysis of elements differing by at least three atomic numbers.
Diffracting media which have proven successful are the long-chain organic crystals and gratings at grazing incidence. The grating is superior to the organic crystal concerning resolution and dispersion and has proven to be comparable arid in some cases better for peak intensity and line-to-background ratios.
Lightly-ruled gratings have been used for many years, but little attention has been given the blazed grating until recently. Since the critical angle of total reflection for a given material is wavelength-dependent, it may be utilized to discriminate against shorter wavelengths and thus improve line-to-background ratios. The optimum conditions for sensitivity, then, would be to relate the input angle to the blaze angle and vary the input angle as a function of wavelength, thereby maximizing the line intensity or the line-to-backgrourid ratio as required.
Several gratings with varying blaze angles and surface finishes are evaluated with O Kα (23.7Å) and C Kα (44Å) radiation.
The importance of groove profile is emphasized by comparing the profile as determined by the electron microscope with the experimental evidence. The variation of diffraction efficiency with wavelength and input angle is then considered theoretically and compared with experimental results.