28 results
Chapter 5 - Preference Reversals, Delay Discounting, Rational Choice, and the Brain
- Edited by José Luis Bermúdez, Texas A & M University
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- Book:
- Self-Control, Decision Theory, and Rationality
- Published online:
- 29 November 2018
- Print publication:
- 06 December 2018, pp 121-146
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Past trauma and future choices: differences in discounting in low-income, urban African Americans
- Carissa van den Berk-Clark, Joel Myerson, Leonard Green, Richard A. Grucza
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- Psychological Medicine / Volume 48 / Issue 16 / December 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 February 2018, pp. 2702-2709
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Background
Exposure to traumatic events is surprisingly common, yet little is known about its effect on decision making beyond the fact that those with post-traumatic stress disorder are more likely to have substance-abuse problems. We examined the effects of exposure to severe trauma on decision making in low-income, urban African Americans, a group especially likely to have had such traumatic experiences.
MethodParticipants completed three decision-making tasks that assessed the subjective value of delayed monetary rewards and payments and of probabilistic rewards. Trauma-exposed cases and controls were propensity-matched on demographic measures, treatment for psychological problems, and substance dependence.
ResultsTrauma-exposed cases discounted the value of delayed rewards and delayed payments, but not probabilistic rewards, more steeply than controls. Surprisingly, given previous findings that suggested women are more affected by trauma when female and male participants’ data were analyzed separately, only the male cases showed steeper delay discounting. Compared with nonalcoholic males who were not exposed to trauma, both severe trauma and alcohol-dependence produced significantly steeper discounting of delayed rewards.
ConclusionsThe current study shows that exposure to severe trauma selectively affects fundamental decision-making processes. Only males were affected, and effects were observed only on discounting delayed outcomes (i.e. intertemporal choice) and not on discounting probabilistic outcomes (i.e. risky choice). These findings are the first to show significant differences in the effects of trauma on men's and women's decision making, and the selectivity of these effects has potentially important implications for treatment and also provides clues as to underlying mechanisms.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Self-control in context
- Leonard Green, Edwin B. Fisher, Jr
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 11 / Issue 4 / December 1988
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- 04 February 2010, pp. 684-685
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Maximization theory vindicated
- Howard Rachlin, Ray Battalio, John Kagel, Leonard Green
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 4 / Issue 3 / September 1981
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- 04 February 2010, pp. 405-417
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Pavlovian conditioned responses: Some elusive results and an indeterminate explanation
- Leonard Green
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 8 / Issue 3 / September 1985
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- 04 February 2010, pp. 402-403
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The concept of leisure in maximization theory
- Howard Rachlin, Ray Battalio, John Kage, Leonard Green
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 6 / Issue 2 / June 1983
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- 04 February 2010, pp. 330-333
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Maximization theory in behavioral psychology
- Howard Rachlin, Ray Battalio, John Kagel, Leonard Green
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 4 / Issue 3 / September 1981
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- 04 February 2010, pp. 371-388
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Maximization theory, which is borrowed from economics, provides techniques for predicing the behavior of animals - including humans. A theoretical behavioral space is constructed in which each point represents a given combination of various behavioral alternatives. With two alternatives - behavior A and behavior B - each point within the space represents a certain amount of time spent performing behavior A and a certain amount of time spent performing behavior B. A particular environmental situation can be described as a constraint on available points (a circumscribed area) within the space. Maximization theory assumes that animals always choose the available point with the highest numerical value. The task of maximization theory is to assign to points in the behavioral space values that remain constant across various environmental situations; as those situations change, the point actually chosen is always the one with the highest assigned value.
Maximization theory is an alternative to reinforcement theory as a description of steady-state behavior. Situations to which reinforcement theory has been directly applied (such as reinforcement of rats pressing levers and pigeons pecking keys in Skinner boxes) and situations to which reinforcement theory has occasionally been extended (such as human economic behavior and human self-control) can be described by maximization theory. This approach views behavior as a quantitative outcome of the interaction of the putative instrumental response, the reinforcer, and the other activities available in the situation. It provides new insight into these situations and, because it takes context into account, has greater predictive power than reinforcement theory.
Choice between long- and short-term interests: Beyond self-control
- Leonard Green, Joel Myerson
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 18 / Issue 1 / March 1995
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 04 February 2010, pp. 127-128
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In the real world, there are choices between large, delayed, punctate rewards and small, more immediate rewards as well as choices between patterns and acts. A common element in these situations is the choice between long- and short-term interests. Key issues for future research appear to be how acts are restructured into larger patterns of behavior, and whether, as Rachlin implies, pattern perception is the cause of pattern generation.
Symbolic Collection using Deep Thought
- C. R. Leedham-Green, Leonard H. Soicher
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- LMS Journal of Computation and Mathematics / Volume 1 / 1998
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- 01 February 2010, pp. 9-24
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We describe the “Deep Thought” algorithm, which can, among other things, take a commutator presentation for a finitely generated torsion-free nilpotent group G, and produce explicit polynomials for the multiplication of elements of G. These polynomials were first shown to exist by Philip Hall, and allow for “symbolic collection” in finitely generated nilpotent groups. We discuss various practicalissues in calculations in such groups, including the construction of a hybrid collector, making use of both the polynomials and ordinary collection from the left.
exrB: a malB-linked gene in Escherichia coli B involved in sensitivity to radiation and filament formation
- Joseph Greenberg, Leonard J. Berends, John Donch, Michael H. L. Green
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- Genetical Research / Volume 23 / Issue 2 / April 1974
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- 14 April 2009, pp. 175-184
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PAM 26, a radiation-sensitive mutant of Escherichia coli strain B, is described. Its properties are attributable to a mutation in a gene, exrB, which is cotransducible with malB. It differs from uvrA (also malB-linked) derivatives of strain B in being sensitive to 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitroso-guanidine and γ-radiation, and in being able to reactivate UV-irradiated phage T3. It differs from exrA (also malB-linked) derivatives of strain B in forming filaments during the course of normal growth as well as after irradiation. When exrB was transduced into a K12 (lon+) strain, filaments did not form spontaneously. Three-point transductions established the order of markers as met A malB exrB. Based on an analysis of the frequency of wild-type recombinants in a reciprocal transduction between exrA and exrB strains, it was inferred that they are not isogenic and that the order of markers is malB exrA exrB.
Degradation in iTMC OLEDs
- Leonard J. Soltzberg, Velda Goldberg, Michael D. Kaplan, Heather Bankowski, Shannon Browne, Heather Concannon, Megan Damour, Samantha Green, Elthea Hendrickson, HengLian Huang, Virginia Liu, Lindsey Piirainen, Suwathna Reel, George G. Malliaras, Jason D. Slinker, Stefan Bernhard
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- MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive / Volume 1029 / 2007
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- 01 February 2011, 1029-F03-30
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- 2007
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The processes underlying degradation of organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are gradually becoming understood. In ruthenium-based ionic transition metal complex (iTMC) OLEDs, a dimeric species forms during device operation that quenches light emission [1]. Water has been implicated in this degradation process [2]. We report recent studies on degradation of OLEDs fabricated with Ir(ppy)2(dtb-bpy)PF6 [ppy = 2-phenylpyridine, dtb-bpy = 4,4'-di-tert-butyl 2,2'-bipyridine [3]. We have found that applying a thicker-than-usual metal electrode results in shorter turn-on times and higher light emission, though little improvement in lifetime. It appears that the degradation of these devices occurs by a different mechanism from that of the ruthenium-based devices and may involve local heating leading to chemical decomposition of the organic material.
Observation of recurring but often transient dark-colored substances in both the Ru(bpy)3(PF6)2 and Ir(ppy)2(dtb-bpy)PF6 systems, seen both in the solid state and in solution samples, may also be indicative of decomposition.
Hyperbola-like discounting, impulsivity, and the analysis of will
- Leonard Green, Joel Myerson
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- Behavioral and Brain Sciences / Volume 28 / Issue 5 / October 2005
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 25 October 2005, pp. 655-656
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Ainslie's insightful treatment of dynamically inconsistent choice stands in contrast to traditional views in psychology, economics, and philosophy. We comment on the form of the discounting function and on new findings regarding choice between delayed rewards. Finally, we argue that the positive correlation between temporal and probability discounting is inconsistent with the view that impulsivity represents a unitary trait.
Preface
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- Economic Choice Theory
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- 22 March 2010
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- 27 January 1995, pp xi-xii
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Summary
This book provides a unified treatment of our research and related research on models of individual choice drawn from economics, psychology, and behavioral biology. The unique aspect of this research from the perspective of economics is its use of laboratory experimental methods and nonhuman subjects to study economic choice theory. The unique aspect of the research from the perspective of psychology is its application of economic concepts to the analysis of individual behavior.
The book is intended for economists, psychologists, and behavioral biologists. It includes a brief, self-contained exposition of the relevant theoretical concepts and relationships for each substantive research area covered. These sections rely on graphical methods with limited algebraic derivations. The book is written at the level of an intermediate to upper-level undergraduate price theory text in economics or a learning text in psychology.
Significant parts of the book are based on a series of published papers. We have expanded upon these by including relevant data from a number of previously unpublished studies of our own, and by analyzing data from our earlier experiments in ways that we had thought about for some time but had never gotten around to, and by establishing clear connections between our work and related research in psychology and biology. Finally, the book has provided a focus for closing some of the more obvious gaps in our analyses.
Acknowledgments
From its inception, the research has been supported by a series of grants from the National Science Foundation, with additional funding from the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Mental Health. We are most grateful for this support.
Index
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- Economic Choice Theory
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- 22 March 2010
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- 27 January 1995, pp 221-230
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Chapter 6 - Choices over uncertain outcomes
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- Economic Choice Theory
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- 22 March 2010
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- 27 January 1995, pp 134-172
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Chapters 2 through 5 considered animals' choices between certain payoffs, which constitute the framework in which consumer-demand and labor-supply theories were originally developed. In those few cases where the experimental procedures subjected animals to uncertain outcomes – for example, where their labor supply was studied under variable-ratio schedules of reinforcement (Section 4.3a) – we ignored the effects of uncertainty on choice and confined the analysis to the average rate of reinforcement. This chapter explicitly considers the effects of uncertainty on animals' choices.
Choice under uncertainty has been a subject of enduring interest to economists, psychologists, and behavioral biologists. Expected utility theory is common to much of the social sciences and has an extensive and long history of experimental studies in economics and psychology using primarily hypothetical choice protocols with humans. The study of nonhuman animals' choices over uncertain outcomes has a more uneven history. In the 1960s, psychologists focused on the study of alternatives with identical payoffs but with different probabilities of reward – psychologists called these “probability learning experiments.” Economists know them as “tests of first-degree stochastic dominance.” Section 6.1 develops the concept of first-degree stochastic dominance and reviews these early probability learning experiments, along with the discretetrial choice procedures that underlie our experimental work.
In the early 1980s, biologists (most notably Caraco, 1981, 1982; Caraco, Martindale, and Whittam, 1980) extended the study of choice under uncertainty beyond questions of first-degree stochastic dominance to test for risk aversion over uncertain food payoffs. In these experiments, animals made choices between a certain food reward and an uncertain one with equal expected value.
Chapter 7 - Intertemporal choice
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- Economic Choice Theory
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- 22 March 2010
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Except in Section 6.5, we have not said much about how differences in the time to the arrival of commodities affect choice. This chapter considers (a) the relationship between commodities having different arrival times, and (b) the role of time discounting on choice. Experimental psychologists have done intensive research on choice between temporally differentiated commodities. In particular, they have considered choices between smaller, more immediate rewards and larger, more delayed alternatives. Much of this research has focused on the nature of the time discount function, with particular attention to those factors that promote impulsiveness versus an enhanced ability to delay gratification.
Section 7.1 presents some of the elementary economic concepts of intertemporal choice. We compare the “standard” choice model employed in the economics literature with predictions drawn from reinforcement theory in psychology. Experimental procedures employed in measuring time discount rates are discussed in Section 7.2, along with the results of a number of experiments reported in the psychology literature. These experiments show that rats and pigeons effectively employ rudimentary present discounted value calculations in deciding between alternatives. However, they also display dynamic inconsistencies, contrary to the economist's standard intertemporal choice formulation. With short delays between choice and outcomes, smaller, more immediate rewards are often preferred to larger, more delayed alternatives. However, with longer delays between choice and outcomes, the larger, more delayed alternative is preferred. We discuss the implications of time discounting for optimal foraging theory and its potential adaptive significance, along with some of the economic implications of rejecting the standard intertemporal choice formulation.
Bibliography
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- 27 January 1995, pp 207-220
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Chapter 8 - Summing up
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- 22 March 2010
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This chapter summarizes our applications of individual choice theory from economics to the study of animal behavior. Our research program has been guided by three primary goals. First and foremost, our goal has been to investigate experimentally important implications of economic choice theory using real, highly valued payoffs. By studying the behavior of individual subjects under rigorous experimental methods, we have been able to investigate economic choice theory without having to rely on the string of auxiliary assumptions usually required when using field data (assumptions about functional forms, measurement of variables, etc., which are often of questionable validity; see, for example, Pencavel, 1986). Our second goal has been to test between the different explanations of the data. This has led to an extensive dialogue, published primarily in psychology journals, in which economic choice theory has been contested with the matching law, a prominent model of choice in the animal psychology literature. Our third goal has been to shed some light on important and complex social issues, such as the cycle of poverty and characteristics of earnings distributions. Here we have used the unique advantages of experiments and the animal model to manipulate treatment variables (such as income level) which cannot easily be done (or are prohibitively expensive to do) with volunteer human subjects. In addition, we have focused on a few select variables – such as pure wealth effects in the cycle of poverty.
Chapter 3 - Commodity-choice behavior II: Tests of competing motivational processes and the representative consumer hypothesis
- John H. Kagel, University of Pittsburgh, Raymond C. Battalio, Texas A & M University, Leonard Green, Washington University, St Louis
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- Economic Choice Theory
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- 22 March 2010
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- 27 January 1995, pp 47-78
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What the empirical data do confirm is that demand curves generally have negative slopes. … But negatively sloping demand curves could result from a wide range of behaviors.
(Simon, 1979, p. 496)As the experiments reported in Chapter 2 demonstrate, income-compensated price changes reliably result in reduced consumption of goods whose price has increased. Further, in the case of normal goods, income-constant demand curves are negatively sloped. Although these studies provide new evidence to support some of the standard operating principles of economic analysis, the question remains, what decision rule, or behavioral process, underlies these outcomes? In this chapter, we examine competing behavioral allocation rules to determine which ones best organize the data. We consider random behavior models, psychological/biological models of choice, and utility function formulations commonly employed in the economics literature.
We consider four competing behavioral allocation rules. The first is Becker's (1962) irrational choice mode, in which essentially random behavior controls choices. That is to say, negatively sloped demand curves do not result from any explicit utility-maximizing process but are incidental to random behavior in conjunction with changes in the budget constraint. The second rule is the matching law (Herrnstein, 1961, 1970), which is prominent in the psychology literature. Under some conditions, the matching law produces optimizing outcomes. Under others, it results in suboptimal behavior. The last two rules considered are explicit utility-maximizing formulations. The first of these, proposed by a number of biologists and psychologists, is that behavior is motivated by attempts to minimize deviations from some optimal-state values (Houston and McFarland, 1980; Staddon, 1979a).