Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pftt2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-04T05:43:33.716Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

18 - Forests

from Land Use, Forests and Agriculture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2021

By
Heather Keith ,
Andrew Macintosh ,
Brendan Mackey  and
Michael H. Smith
Edited by
Kenneth G. H. Baldwin ,
Mark Howden ,
Michael H. Smith ,
Karen Hussey  and
Peter J. Dawson
Kenneth G. H. Baldwin
Affiliation:
Australian National University, Canberra
Mark Howden
Affiliation:
Australian National University, Canberra
Michael H. Smith
Affiliation:
Australian National University, Canberra
Karen Hussey
Affiliation:
University of Queensland
Peter J. Dawson
Affiliation:
P. J. Dawson & Associates
Get access

Summary

Human activities in forests contribute more than one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions. Forests face serious risks from climate change due to more intense and frequent mega-fires, drought and loss of ecosystem resilience resulting from biodiversity loss, which in turn impact the provision of ecosystem services. Priorities for mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate change are: avoiding emissions by protecting carbon stocks in natural ecosystems; sequestering carbon through restoration of degraded ecosystems; and reducing emissions through transferring wood production to plantations on existing cleared land, improving efficiency of wood processing, reducing waste, producing higher value wood products with longer lifetimes, substituting emissions-intensive building materials with wood, and recycling. Many co-benefits arise from forest management strategies for mitigation through protection and restoration. Effective governance and policy are critical to supporting and incentivising these mitigation and adaptation strategies to invest in restoration of native forests and development of plantation forests. Alternative policy development frameworks are discussed.

Keywords

deforestationforest degradationrestorationwood productssubstitutionecosystem resilienceforest governanceLEAF-BEDS model
Type
Chapter
Information
Transitioning to a Prosperous, Resilient and Carbon-Free Economy
A Guide for Decision-Makers
 , pp. 462 - 500
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acuff, K. and Kaffine, D. T. (2013). Greenhouse gas emissions, waste and recycling policy. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 65, 74–86.Google Scholar
Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K., Chenchouni, H. et al. (2010). A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 259, 660–684.Google Scholar
Anderegg, W. R. L., Kane, J. M. and Anderegg, L. D. L. (2013). Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nature Climate Change, 3, 30–36.Google Scholar
Archer, D. (2005). Fate of fossil fuel CO2 in geologic time. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asner, G. P., Powell, G. V. N., Mascaro, J. et al. (2010). High resolution forest carbon stocks and emissions in the Amazon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 16739–16742.Google Scholar
Baccini, A., Goetz, S. J., Walker, W. S. et al. (2012 ). Estimated carbon dioxide emissions from tropical deforestation improved by carbon-density maps. Nature Climate Change, 2, 182–185.Google Scholar
Barnard, S. and Nakhooda, S. (2014). The Effectiveness of Climate Finance: A Review of the Scaling-up Renewable Energy Program. Working Paper 396. Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Available at: www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9075.pdf.Google Scholar
Bellassen, V. and Luyssaert, S. (2014). Managing forests in uncertain times. Nature, 506, 153–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berenguer, E., Ferreira, J., Gardner, T. A. et al. (2014). A large-scale field assessment of carbon stocks in human-modified tropical forests. Global Change Biology, 20, 3713–3726.Google Scholar
Betts, R., Cox, P., Collins, M., Harris, P. and Huntingford, C. (2004). The role of ecosystem–atmosphere interactions in simulated Amazonian precipitation decrease and forest dieback under global climate warming. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 78, 157–175.Google Scholar
Boucher, D., Elias, P., Faires, J. and Smith, S. (2014). Deforestation Success Stories: Tropical Nations Where Forest Protection and Reforestation Policies Have Worked. Tropical Forest and Climate Initiative of the Union of Concerned Scientists. Available at: www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/solutions/stop-deforestation/deforestation-success-stories.html#.V20e8vl96M8.Google Scholar
Bowman, D., Balch, J. K., Artaxo, P. et al. (2009). Fire in the Earth system. Science, 324, 481–484.Google Scholar
Brasier, C. and Webber, J. (2010). Plant pathology: Sudden larch death. Nature, 466, 824–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breshears, D. D., Cobb, N. S., Rich, P. M. et al. (2005). Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 15144–15148.Google Scholar
Bryan, J., Shearman, P., Ash, J. and Kirkpatrick, J. B. (2010). Estimating rainforest biomass stocks and carbon loss from deforestation and degradation in Papua New Guinea 1972–2002: Best estimates, uncertainties and research needs. Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 995–1001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, M., Chen, J., Elgie, S. et al. (2010). Maintaining the roles of Canada’s forests and peatlands in climate regulation. The Forestry Chronicle, 86, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, K. M., Curran, L. M., Ratnasari, D. et al. (2012). Committed carbon emissions, deforestation, and community land conversion from oil palm plantation expansion in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 7559–7564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnahan, J. A. (1976). Natural vegetation: Map with accompanying booklet commentary. In Atlas of Australian Resources, Second series. Canberra: Geographic Section, Department of National Development.Google Scholar
Carnicer, J., Coll, M., Ninyerola, M., Pons, X., Sanchez, G. and Penuelas, J. (2011). Widespread crown condition decline, food web disruption, and amplified tree mortality with increased climate change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 1474–1478.Google Scholar
Cary, G. J., Bradstock, R. A., Gill, A. M. and Williams, R. J. (2012). Global change and fire regimes in Australia. In Bradstock, R. A., Malcolm, G. A. and Williams, R. J, eds., Flammable Australia: Fire Regimes, Biodiversity and Ecosystems in a Changing World. Melbourne: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Publishing, pp. 149–170.Google Scholar
Chia, E. L., Somorin, O. A., Sonwa, D. J., Bele, Y. M. and Tiani, M. A. (2015). Forest–climate nexus: Linking adaptation and mitigation in Cameroon’s climate policy process. Climate and Development, 7, 85–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chong, S. K. (2005). Anmyeon-do Recreation Forest: A millennium of management. In Durst, P., Brown, C., Tacio, H. D. and Ishikawa, M., eds., In Search of Excellence: Exemplary Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, pp. 251–259.Google Scholar
Cias, P., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N. et al. (2005). Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature, 437, 529–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cyr, D., Gauthier, S., Bergeron, Y. and Carcaillet, C. (2009). Forest management is driving the eastern North American boreal forest outside its natural range of variability. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 7, 519–524.Google Scholar
Dave, R., Saint-Laurent, C., Murray, L. et al. (2019). Second Bonn Challenge Progress Report: Application of the Barometer in 2018. Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Available at: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2019-018-En.pdf.Google Scholar
Daviet, F., Goers, L. and Austin, K. (2009). Forests in the Balance Sheet: Lessons from Developed Country Land Use Change and Forestry Greenhouse Gas Accounting and Reporting Practices. Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Available at: www.wri.org/publication/forests-balance-sheet.Google Scholar
Dean, C., Wardell-Johnson, G. W. and Kirkpatrick, J. B. (2012). Are there circumstances in which logging primary wet-eucalypt forest will not add to the global carbon burden? Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 161, 156–169.Google Scholar
Dooley, K. (2014). Misleading Numbers: The Case for Separating Land and Fossil Fuel Based Carbon Emissions. Report. Brussels: Fern. Available at: www.fern.org/misleadingnumbers.Google Scholar
Environmental Paper Network (2018). The State of the Global Paper Industry. Available at: https://environmentalpaper.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/StateOfTheGlobalPaperIndustry2018_FullReport-Final-1.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (n.d.). FAOSTAT [data resource]. FAO.org. Available at: www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO.Google Scholar
FAO (2004). The State of Food and Agriculture 2003–04. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor? Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/3/a-y5160e.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2010). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. FAO Forestry Paper 163. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/3/a-i1757e.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2011). Transitioning Towards Climate-Smart Agriculture in Kenya. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/3/a-i4259e.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2013a). Forestry. Fact sheet. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/docrep/014/am859e/am859e08.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2013b). Forest Product Statistics: 2013 Global Forest Products Facts and Figures. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/newsroom/docs/FactsFigures2013_En.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2014). Forest Product Statistics: 2014 Global Forest Products Facts and Figures. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/forestry/44134-01f63334f207ac6e086bfe48fe7c7e986.pdf.Google Scholar
FAO (2015). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Available at: www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/past-assessments/fra-2015/en/.Google Scholar
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia) (2011). Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy – Green Economy Strategy. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Available at: www.undp.org/content/dam/ethiopia/docs/Ethiopia%20CRGE.pdf.Google Scholar
Fearnside, P. (2015). What lies behind the recent surge of Amazon deforestation. Yale Environment 360. 9 March. Available at: http://e360.yale.edu/feature/what_lies_behind_the_recent_surge_of_amazon_deforestation/2854/.Google Scholar
Fensham, R. J., Fairfax, R. J. and Ward, D. P. (2009). Drought induced tree death in savanna. Global Change Biology, 15, 380–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) (n.d.). Facts & figures. FSC. Available at: https://fsc.org/en/facts-figures.Google Scholar
Gerasimchuk, I, Bridle, R., Beaton, C. and Charles, C. (2012). State of Play on Biofuel Subsidies: Are Policies Ready to Shift? Report. Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Available at: www.iisd.org/gsi/sites/default/files/bf_stateplay_2012.pdf.Google Scholar
Grieg-Gran, M. (2006). The Cost of Avoiding Deforestation: Report Prepared for the Stern Review of the Economics of Climate Change. London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).Google Scholar
Guariguata, M., Cornelius, J., Locatelli, B., Forner, C. and Sanchez-Azofeifa, G. (2008). Mitigation needs adaptation: Tropical forestry and climate change. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 13, 793–808.Google Scholar
Gustavsson, L., Pingoud, K. and Sathre, R. (2006). Carbon dioxide balance of wood substitution: Comparing concrete- and wood-framed buildings. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 11, 667–691.Google Scholar
Hamilton, C. and Macintosh, A. (2008). Human ecology: Environmental protection and ecology. In Jorgensen, S., ed., Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, pp. 1342–1350.Google Scholar
Hanewinkel, M., Cullmann, D. A., Schelhaas, M. J., Nabuurs, G. J. and Zimmermann, N. E. (2012). Climate change may cause severe loss in economic value of European forest land. Nature Climate Change, 3, 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harmon, M. E., Ferrell, W. K. and Franklin, J. F. (1990). Effects on carbon storage of conversion of old-growth forests to young forests. Science, 247, 699–703.Google Scholar
Harris, N., Brown, S., Hagen, S. et al. (2012). Baseline map of carbon emissions from deforestation in tropical regions. Science, 336, 1573–1576.Google Scholar
Hellman, J. J., Byers, J. E., Bierwagen, B. G. and Dukes, J. S. (2008). Five potential consequences of climate change for invasive species. Conservation Biology, 22, 534–543.Google Scholar
Hoare, A. (2015). Tackling Illegal Logging and the Related Trade: What Progress and Where Next? Chatham House. Available at: www.chathamhouse.org/publication/tackling-illegal-logging-and-related-trade-what-progress-and-where-next.Google Scholar
Houghton, R. A. (2012). Carbon emissions and the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 4, 597–603.Google Scholar
Houghton, R. A. (2013). The emissions of carbon from deforestation and degradation in the tropics: Past trends and future potential. Carbon Management, 4, 539–546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houghton, R. A., Byers, B. and Nassikas, A. A. (2015). A role for tropical forests in stabilizing atmospheric CO2. Nature Climate Change, 5, 1022–1023.Google Scholar
Howlett, M. (1991). Policy instruments, policy styles, and policy implementation: National approaches to theories of instrument choice. Policy Studies Journal, 19, 1–21.Google Scholar
Howlett, M. (2004). Beyond good and evil in policy implementation: Instrument mixes, implementation styles, and second generation theories of policy instrument choice. Policy and Society, 23, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howlett, M. and Rayner, J. (2007). Design principles for policy mixes: Cohesion and coherence in ‘new governance arrangements’. Policy and Society, 26, 1–18.Google Scholar
Hudiburg, T., Law, B. E., Wirth, C. and Luyssaert, S. (2011). Regional carbon dioxide implications of forest bioenergy production. Nature Climate Change, 1, 419–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, L. (2000). Biological consequences of global warming: Is the signal already apparent? Tree, 15, 56–61.Google Scholar
Hughes, L. (2012). Can Australian biodiversity adapt to climate change? In Lunney, D. and Hutchings, P., eds., Wildlife and Climate Change: Towards Robust Strategies for Australian Fauna. Sydney: Royal Zoological Society of Australia, pp. 8–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, D. (2008). The politics of ‘avoided deforestation’: Historical context and contemporary issues. International Forestry Review, 10, 433–442.Google Scholar
Ingerson, A. (2011). Carbon storage potential of harvested wood: Summary and policy implications. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 16, 307–323.Google Scholar
IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Edited by Pachauri, R. K. and Meyer, L. A.. Geneva: IPCC. Available at: www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/.Google Scholar
ISU (International Sustainability Unit) (2015). Tropical Forests: A Review. London: The Prince’s Charities International Sustainability Unit. Available at: www.pcfisu.org/resources/.Google Scholar
Keith, H., van Gorsel, E., Jacobsen, K. L. and Cleugh, H. A. (2012). Dynamics of carbon exchange in a Eucalyptus forest in response to interacting disturbance factors. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 153, 67–81.Google Scholar
Keith, H., Lindenmayer, D. B., Mackey, B. G. et al. (2014a). Accounting for biomass carbon stock change due to wildfire in temperate forest landscapes in Australia. PLoS One, e107126.Google Scholar
Keith, H., Lindenmayer, D. B., Mackey, B. G. et al. (2014b). Managing temperate forests for carbon storage: Impacts of logging versus forest protection on carbon stocks. Ecosphere, 5, 75.Google Scholar
Keith, H., Lindenmayer, D. B., Macintosh, A. and Mackey, B. G. (2015). Under what circumstances do wood products from native forests benefit climate change mitigation? PLoS One, 10, e0139640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraft, N. J. B., Metz, M. R., Condit, R. S. and Chave, J. (2010). The relationship between wood density and mortality in a global tropical forest data set. New Phytologist, 188, 1124–1136.Google Scholar
Krankina, O. N. and Harmon, M. E. (2006). Forest management strategies for carbon storage. In Salwasser, H. and Cloughsey, M., eds., Forests, Carbon and Climate Change: A Synthesis of Science Findings. Portland, OR: Oregon Forest Research Institute, pp. 79–92.Google Scholar
Kurz, W. A., Dymond, C. C., Stinson, G. et al. (2008). Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change. Nature, 452, 987–990.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Law, B. E., Falge, E., Gu, L., Baldocchi, D. D. and Bakwin, P. (2002). Environmental controls over carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange of terrestrial vegetation. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 113, 97–120.Google Scholar
Le Quéré, C., Peters, G. P., Andres, R. J. et al. (2013). Global carbon budget 2013. Earth System Science Data, 6, 689–760.Google Scholar
Lee, S. G. (2004). A simplified life cycle assessment of re-usable and single-use bulk transit packaging. Packaging Technology and Science, 17, 67–83.Google Scholar
Lenton, T. M., Held, H., Kriegler, E. et al. (2008). Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 1786–1793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Locatelli, B., Evans, V., Wardell, A., Andrade, A. and Vignola, R. (2011). Forests and climate change in Latin America: Linking adaptation and mitigation. Forests, 2, 431–450.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A. (2011). Potential Carbon Credits from Reducing Native Forest Harvesting in Australia. CLP Working Paper 2011/1. Canberra: Australian National University (ANU) Centre for Climate Law and Policy.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A. (2012a). Tasmanian Forests Intergovernmental Agreement: An Assessment of Its Carbon Value. Canberra: Australian National University (ANU) Centre for Climate Law and Policy.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A. (2012b). The Australia clause and REDD: A cautionary tale. Climatic Change, 112, 169–188.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A. (2013). The Australian Native Forest Sector: The Causes of the Decline and Prospects for the Future. Technical brief No. 21. Canberra: The Australia Institute. Available at: www.tai.org.au/sites/default/files/TB%2021%20State%20of%20the%20native%20forest%20industry_1_3.pdf.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A. and Wilkinson, D. (2015). Complexity theory and the constraints on environmental policy-making. Journal of Environmental Law, 28, 65–93.Google Scholar
Macintosh, A., Keith, H. and Lindenmayer, D. (2015). Rethinking forest carbon assessments to account for policy institutions. Nature Climate Change, 5, 946–952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackey, B. G., DellaSala, D. A., Kormos, C. et al. (2015). Policy options for the world’s primary forests in multilateral environmental agreements. Conservation Letters, 8, 139–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackey, B., Kormos, C., Keith, H. et al. (2020). Understanding the importance of primary tropical forest protection as a mitigation strategy. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 25, 763–787. Available at: )https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-019-09891-4.Google Scholar
Malhi, Y., Aragao, L. E. O. C., Galbraith, D. et al. (2009). Exploring the likelihood and mechanism of a climate-change-induced dieback of the Amazon rainforest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 20610–20615.Google Scholar
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Available at: www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf.Google Scholar
Mery, G., Katila, P., Galloway, G. et al., eds. (2010). Forests and Society: Responding to Global Drivers of Change. International Union of Forest Research Organizations. Available at: www.iufro.org/science/special/wfse/forests-society-global-drivers/.Google Scholar
Michaelian, M., Hogg, E. H., Hall, R. J. and Arsenault, E. (2011). Massive mortality of aspen following severe drought along the southern edge of the Canadian boreal forest. Global Change Biology, 17, 2084–2094.Google Scholar
Murdiyarso, D., Purbopuspito, J., Kauffman, J. B. et al. (2015). The potential of Indonesian mangrove forests for global climate change mitigation. Nature Climate Change, 5, 1089–1092.Google Scholar
Nobre, C. A. and Borma, L. D. S. (2009). ‘Tipping points’ for the Amazon forest. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 1, 28–36.Google Scholar
OECD (2014). Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2014. Report. Paris: OECD. Available at: www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/agricultural-policy-monitoring-and-evaluation-2014_agr_pol-2014-en.Google Scholar
Pan, Y, Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J. et al. (2011). A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science, 333, 988–993.Google Scholar
Paquette, A. and Messier, C. (2010). The role of plantations in managing the world’s forests in the Anthropocene. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 8, 27–34.Google Scholar
PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification) (n.d.). Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification. Available at: www.pefc.org/.Google Scholar
Phillips, O. L., Aragão, L. E., Lewis, S. L. et al. (2009). Drought sensitivity of the Amazon rainforest. Science, 323, 1344–1347.Google Scholar
Phillips, O. L., van der Heijden, G., Lewis, S. L. et al. (2010). Drought–mortality relationships for tropical forests. New Phytologist, 187, 631–646.Google Scholar
Ravindranath, N. H. (2007). Adaptation and mitigation synergy in the forest sector. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12, 843–853.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Republic of Rwanda (2011). Green Growth and Climate Resilience – National Strategy for Climate Change and Low Carbon Development. Government of Rwanda. Available at: https://greengrowthknowledge.org/national-documents/rwanda-green-growth-and-climate-resilience-national-strategy-climate-change-and.Google Scholar
Rizvi, A. R., Baig, S., Barrow, E. and Kumar, C. (2015). Synergies between Climate Mitigation and Adaptation in Forest Landscape Restoration. Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Available at: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2015-013.pdf.Google Scholar
Scheffer, M., Hirota, M., Holmgren, M., van Nes, E. H. and Chapin, F. S. (2012). Thresholds for boreal biome transitions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 21384–21389.Google Scholar
Schlamadinger, B. and Marland, G. (1999). Net effect of forest harvest on CO2 emissions to the atmosphere: A sensitivity analysis on the influence of time. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 51, 314–325.Google Scholar
Schulze, E.-D., Körner, C., Law, B. E., Haberl, H. and Luyssaert, S. (2012). Large-scale bioenergy from additional harvest of forest biomass is neither sustainable nor greenhouse gas neutral. Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 4, 611–616.Google Scholar
Searchinger, T. (2010). Biofuels and the need for additional carbon. Environmental Research Letters, 5, 1–10.Google Scholar
Seifert, T. (2013). Bioenergy from Wood: Sustainable Production in the Tropics. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.Google Scholar
Settele, J., Scholes, R., Betts, R. et al. (2014). Terrestrial and inland water systems. In Field, C. B., Barros, V. R., Dokken, D. J. et al., eds., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 271–359. Available at: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap4_FINAL.pdf.Google Scholar
Sitch, S., Huntingford, C., Gedney, N. et al. (2008). Evaluation of the terrestrial carbon cycle, future plant geography and climate carbon cycle feedbacks using five Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs). Global Change Biology, 14, 2015–2039.Google Scholar
Smith, P., Bustamante, M., Ahammad, H. et al. (2014). Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU). In Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y. et al., eds., Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 816–922. Available at: www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter11.pdf.Google Scholar
Steffen, W., Burbidge, A., Hughes, L. et al. (2009). Australia’s Biodiversity and Climate Change. Melbourne: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephenson, N. L., Das, A. J., Condit, R. et al. (2014). Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature, 507, 90–93.Google Scholar
Stern, N. (2006). The Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407172811/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/stern_review_report.htm.Google Scholar
Thompson, I., Mackey, B., McNulty, S. and Mosseler, A. (2009). Forest Resilience, Biodiversity and Climate Change. A Synthesis of the Biodiversity/Resilience/Stability Relationship in Forest Ecosystems. CBD Technical Series No. 43. Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention in Biological Diversity. Available at: www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-43-en.pdf.Google Scholar
TI (Transparency International) (2006). Corruption and the Environment. Transparency International. Available at: www.earth.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/education/documents/progs_of_study/TransparencyInternationalfinalreport1may06.doc.Google Scholar
United Nations Statistical Commission (2021). System of Environmental Economic Accounting : Ecosystem Accounting. New York: United Nations Statistical Commission. Available at: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/52nd-session/documents/BG-3f-SEEA-EA_Final_draft-E.pdf.Google Scholar
UNDP (UN Development Programme) (2000). World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability. New York: UN Development Programme, UN Department of Economics and Social Affairs and World Energy Council. Available at: www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/publications/environment-energy/www-ee-library/sustainable-energy/world-energy-assessment-energy-and-the-challenge-of-sustainability/World%20Energy%20Assessment-2000.pdf.Google Scholar
UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change) (2010). Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Sixteenth Session, held in Cancun. Decisions Adopted by the Conference of the Parties 1/CP.16 The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention. Available at: https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf.Google Scholar
van der Werf, G. R., Morton, D. C., DeFries, R. S. et al. (2009). CO2 emissions from forest loss. Nature Geoscience, 2, 737–738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Mantgem, P. J., Stephenson, N. L., Byrne, J. C. et al. (2009). Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science, 323, 521–524.Google Scholar
Westerling, A. L., Turner, M. G., Smithwick, E. A. H., Romme, W. H. and Ryan, M. G. (2011). Continued warming could transform Greater Yellowstone fire regimes by mid-21st century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 13165–13170.Google Scholar
Williams, A. A. J., Karoly, D. J. and Tapper, N. (2001). The sensitivity of Australian fires danger to climate change. Climatic Change, 49, 171–191.Google Scholar
Williams, A. P., Allen, C. D., Millar, C. I. et al. (2010). Forest responses to increasing aridity and warmth in the southwestern United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 21289–21294.Google Scholar
Williams, A. P., Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K. et al. (2013). Temperature as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nature Climate Change, 3, 292–297.Google Scholar
WRI (World Resources Institute) (2014). Better Growth, Better Climate. The New Climate Economy Report. The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. Washington, DC: The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate, World Resources Institute. Available at: www.newclimateeconomy.report/2014.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×