Element contents
Archaeology of the Roman Conquest
Tracing the Legions, Reclaiming the Conquered
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 March 2024
Summary
This Element volume provides an up-to-date synthesis of the archaeology of the Roman conquest, combining new theoretical and methodological approaches with the latest fieldwork results. Recent advances in conflict archaeology research are revolutionising our knowledge of Rome's military campaigns in Western and Central Europe, allowing scholars to reassess the impact of the conquest on the indigenous populations. The volume explores different types of material evidence for the Roman wars of conquest, including temporary camps, battlefields, coinage production, and regional settlement patterns. These and other topics are examined using four case studies: Caesar's Gallic Wars, the Cantabrian and Asturian Wars, the Germanic Wars of Augustus, and the Roman conquest of Britain. By focusing on the 'dark sides' of the Roman expansion and reclaiming the memory of the conquered, the Element aims to contribute to a more holistic understanding of the processes of incorporation and integration into the Roman Empire.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781009182003Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 04 April 2024
References
Primary Sources
Appian, (2019). Roman History, McGing, B. (ed. and trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Augustus (2009). Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Cooley, A. (ed. and trans.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Caesar, (1917). The Gallic War, Edwards, H. J. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Dio, Cassius (1917). Roman History, Books LI-LV, Cary, E. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Florus, (1984). Epitome of Roman History, Forster, E. S. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Plutarch, (1919). Lives, Volume VII: Demosthenes and Cicero. Alexander and Caesar, Perrin, B. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Strabo, (1923). Geography, Books 3–5, Jones, H. L. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Suetonius, (1998). Lives of the Caesars, Vol. 1, Rolfe, J.C. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Tacitus, (1931). The Histories, Books IV-V, Moore, C. H. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Tacitus, (1937). The Annals, Jackson, J. (trans.). Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Secondary Sources
Aldhouse-Green, M. (2010). Caesar’s Druids. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alföldy, G. (2000). Das neue Edikt des Augustus aus El Bierzo in Hispanien. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 131: 177–205.Google Scholar
Amela, L. (2013–14). La conquista del norte peninsular. Primeros tanteos según las fuentes literarias. Hispania Antiqua XXXVII–XXXVIII: 69–84.Google Scholar
Badian, E. (1968). Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.Google Scholar
Ball, J. (2014). Small finds and Roman battlefields: The process and impact of post-battle looting. In Platts, H., Pearce, J., Barron, C., Lundock, J. and Yoo, J. (eds.), TRAC 2013: Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. Oxbow, Oxford: 90–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, J., Freeman, P. and Woodward, A. (2000). Cadbury Castle, Somerset. English Heritage, London.Google Scholar
Becker, A. and Rasbach, G. (eds.) (2015). Waldgirmes. Die Ausgrabungen in der spätaugusteischen Siedlung von Lahnau-Waldgirmes (1993–2009). Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Bellón, J. P., Lechuga, M. A., Rueda, C., et al. (2021). De situ Iliturgi, análisis arqueológico de su asedio en el contexto de la segunda guerra púnica. Archivo Español de Arqueología 94: e15.Google Scholar
Bellón, J. P., Ruiz, A., Molinos, M., Rueda, C. and Gómez, F. (eds.) (2015). La Segunda Guerra Púnica en la Península Ibérica. Baecula, arqueología de una batalla. Universidad de Jaén, Jaén.Google Scholar
Beltrán, A., Zubiaurre, E., Orejas, A., Arboledas, L. and Pecharromán, J. L. (2019). Presencia militar en las zonas mineras del noroeste peninsular: dominio y explotación territorial. Actes du Groupe de Recherches sur l’Esclavage depuis l’Antiquité 38: 267–295.Google Scholar
Belvedere, O. and Bergemann, J. (eds.) (2021). Imperium Romanum: Romanization between Colonization and Globalization. Palermo University Press, Palermo.Google Scholar
Bloxham, D. and Moses, A. D. (eds.) (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Bohigas, R., Peralta, E. and Ruiz Vélez, I. (2015). Un nuevo gran episodio del ‘Bellum Cantabricum’: el cerco a Peña Dulla (merindad de Sotoscueva, Burgos). In , J. Camino, Peralta, E. and Torres-Martínez, J. F. (eds.), Las Guerras Astur-Cántabras. KRK Ediciones, Gijón: 191–195.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The Logic of Practice. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowes, K. (ed.) (2021). The Roman Peasant Project 2009–2014. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D. (1988). Why did the Romans fail to conquer Scotland? Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 118: 3–22.Google Scholar
Breeze, D. (2018). The value of studying Roman frontiers. Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal 1: 1–17.Google Scholar
Breeze, D. (2019). Oppida in Britain in the face of the Roman conquest. In Romankiewicz, T., Fernández-Götz, M., Lock, G. and Buchsenschutz, O. (eds.), Enclosing Space, Opening New Ground: Iron Age Studies from Scotland to Mainland Europe. Oxbow, Oxford: 121–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D., Jones, R. and Oltean, I. (eds.) (2015). Understanding Roman Frontiers. John Donald, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Brown, C. J., Torres-Martínez, J. F., Fernández-Götz, M. and Martínez-Velasco, A. (2017). Fought under the walls of Bergida: KOCOA analysis of the Roman attack on the Cantabrian oppidum of Monte Bernorio (Spain). Journal of Conflict Archaeology 12(2): 115–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Büntgen, U., Tegel, W., Nicolussi, K., et al. (2011). 2500 Years of European climate variability and human susceptibility. Science 331: 578–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burmeister, S. (2015). Roms Kampf im Norden. Die Eroberung Germaniens. In Burmeister, S. and Rottmann, J. (eds.), Ich Germanicus: Feldherr, Priester, Superstar. Theiss, Darmstadt: 9–16.Google Scholar
Burmeister, S. (2020). Germanen? Die Facetten und Probleme eines germanischen Kollektivbegriffs vor dem Hintergrund der bekannten Quellen. In Uelsberg, G. and Wemhoff, M. (eds.), Germanen: Eine archäologische Bestandsaufnahme. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt: 417–431.Google Scholar
Burmeister, S. (2021). Hyper-Geschichte. Arminius und die Varusschlacht als Motor nationaler Identitätsbildung. In Abar, A., D’Anna, M. B., Cyrus, G., et al. (eds.), Pearls, Politics and Pistachios. Essays in Anthropology and Memories on the Occasion of Susan Pollock’s 65th Birthday. Propylaeum, Heidelberg: 477–492.Google Scholar
Burmeister, S. (2022). Hermeneutik des Konflikts: Kalkriese als Ort der Varusschlacht. In Rass, C. and Adam, M. (eds.), Konfliktlandschaften interdisziplinär lesen. V&R unipress/Universitätsverlag Osnabrück, Göttingen: 99–129.Google Scholar
Cadiou, F. and Navarro-Caballero, M. (eds.) (2014). La guerre et ses traces. Conflits et sociétés en Hispanie à l’époque de la conquête romaine (IIIe-Ier s. a.C.). Ausonius, Bordeaux.Google Scholar
Cahana-Blum, J. and MacKendrick, K. (eds.) (2019). We and They: Decolonizing Graeco-Roman and Biblical Antiquities. Aarhus University Press, Aarhus.Google Scholar
Camino, J. (2015). La línea de operaciones de la vía Carisa. In Camino, J., Peralta, E. and Torres-Martínez, J. F. (eds.), Las Guerras Astur-Cántabras. KRK Ediciones, Gijón: 217–237.Google Scholar
Camino, J. and Martín-Hernández, E. (2014). La Carisa, un eje de conquista en el Bellum Asturicum. In Ruiz, E. Martínez and Montenegro, J. Cantera (eds.), Perspectivas y novedades de la historia militar. Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid: 135–154.Google Scholar
Camino, J., Peralta, E. and Torres-Martínez, J. F. (eds.) (2015). Las Guerras Astur-Cántabras. KRK Ediciones, Gijón.Google Scholar
Chalk, F. and Jonassohn, K. (1990). The History and Sociology of Genocide. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Champion, T. (2016). Britain before the Romans. In Millett, M., Revell, L. and Moore, A. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 150–178.Google Scholar
Cook, M. and Dunbar, L. (2008). Rituals, Roundhouses and Romans: Excavations at Kintore, Aberdeenshire, 2000–2006. Scottish Trust for Archaeological Research, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Costa-García, J. M. and García-Sánchez, J. (in press). The siege of Cerro Castarreño. In Driessen, M., Graafstal, E. P., Hazenberg, T., et al. (eds.), Limes XXV. Proceedings of the 25th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Sidestone Press, Leiden.Google Scholar
Creighton, J. (2000). Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Cruz, E. A. (2010). The Grand Araucanian Wars 1541–1883 in the Kingdom of Chile. Xlibris, Bloomington, IN.Google Scholar
Danieli, Y. (ed.) (1998). International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma. Plenum, New York, NY.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jersey, P. (2019). The island of Jersey: Focus of resistance or field of last resort? In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 267–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delibes, G., Esparza, A. and Martín Valls, R. (1996). Los tesoros prerromanos de Arrabalde (Zamora) y la joyería celtibérica. Fundación Rei Afonso Henriques, Zamora.Google Scholar
Deyber, A. and Luginbühl, T. (2018). Cimbri and Teutones against Rome: First results concerning the battle of Arausio (105 BC). In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 155–166.Google Scholar
Dietler, M. (1994). Our ancestors the Gauls: Archaeology, ethnic nationalism, and the manipulation of Celtic identity in modern Europe. American Anthropologist 96: 584–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dingwall, K. and Shepherd, J. (2018). Highway Through History: An Archaeological Journey on the Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route. Headland Archaeology, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Dolfini, A., Crellin, R., Horn, C. and Uckelmann, M. (eds.) (2018). Prehistoric Warfare and Violence. Springer, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Elkins, C. (2022). Legacy of Violence: A History of the British Empire. Bodley Head, London.Google Scholar
Fernández-Crespo, T., Ordoño, J., Llanos, A. and Schulting, R. (2020). Make a desert and call it peace: Massacre at the Iberian Iron Age village of La Hoya. Antiquity 94(377): 1245–1262.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M. (2014). Identity and Power: The Transformation of Iron Age Societies in Northeast Gaul. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M. (2018). Urbanization in Iron Age Europe: Trajectories, patterns and social dynamics. Journal of Archaeological Research 26: 117–162.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M. and Arnold, B. (2019). Internal conflict in Iron Age Europe: Methodological challenges and possible scenarios. World Archaeology 51(5): 654–672.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M., Cowley, D., Hamilton, D., Hardwick, I. and McDonald, S. (2022). Beyond walls: Reassessing Iron Age and Roman encounters in northern Britain. Antiquity 96(388): 1021–1029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M., Maschek, D. and Roymans, N. (2020). The dark side of the Empire: Roman expansionism between object agency and predatory regime. Antiquity 94(378): 1630–1639.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.) (2018). Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (in press). Failed conquests: How Iron Age social structures shaped the limits of Roman expansion. In Witcher, R. and Hanscam, E. (eds.), Resistance & Reception: Critical Archaeologies of Iron Age & Roman Worlds. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Fernández-Götz, M., Torres-Martínez, J. F. and Martínez-Velasco, A. (2018). The battle at Monte Bernorio and the Augustan conquest of Cantabrian Spain. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 127–140.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. (1989). The submission of the Orkney Islands to Claudius: New evidence? Scottish Archaeological Review 6: 24–33.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. (2001). Cross-Channel exchange, Hengistbury Head and the end of hillforts. In Collis, J. (ed.), Society and Settlement in Iron Age Europe. Sheffield Archaeological Monograph, Sheffield: 82–97.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. (2019). Caesar’s landing sites in Britain and Gaul in 55 and 54 BC. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 135–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. (2023). Le casque de la fin de l’âge du Fer avec une crête en forme d’oiseau trouvé à North Bersted, West Sussex, Angleterre. In Warmenbol, E. and Cao-Van, J. (eds.), Les Celtes et les oiseaux. Carnyx 2, Libramont: 102–115.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.) (2019). Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (2023). Caesar in Britain: Britain in Rome. In Jacobsen, J. K., Raja, R. and Saxkjær, S. Grove (eds.), Caesar, Rome and Beyond. Brepols, Turnhout: 97–116.Google Scholar
Folkers, A., Jöns, H., Merkel, S., et al. (2018). Römisch-germanische Kontakte an der Huntemündung? Fragestellungen, Methoden und erste Ergebnisse aktueller interdisziplinärer Forschungen am Ufermarkt von Elsfleth-Hogenkamp und seinem Umfeld. In Burmeister, S. and Ortisi, S. (eds.), Phantom Germanicus. Spurensuche zwischen historischer Überlieferung und archäologischem Befund. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf.: 335–360.Google Scholar
Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Durham, E. and Pankhurst, N. (2018). Late Iron Age Calleva. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, London.Google Scholar
Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research 27(3): 291–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García-Sánchez, J., Costa-García, J. M., Fonte, J. and González-Álvarez, D. (2022). Exploring ephemeral features with ground-penetrating radar: An approach to Roman military camps. Remote Sensing 14(19): 4884. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194884.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, A. (2013). Thinking about Roman imperialism: Postcolonialism, globalisation and beyond? Britannia 44: 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, N. (2020). The origins of British oppida. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 39(1): 107–125.Google Scholar
Gillespie, C. (2018). Boudica: Warrior Woman of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Girault, J.-P. (2013). La fontaine de Loulié au Puy d’Issolud. Le dossier archéologique du siège d’Uxellodunum. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne.Google Scholar
González-Echegaray, J. (1999). Las guerras cántabras en las fuentes. In Las Guerras Cántabras. Fundación Marcelino Botín & Real Academia de la Historia, Santander: 145–169.Google Scholar
González-Ruibal, A. (2015). An archaeology of predation: Capitalism and the coloniality of power in Equatorial Guinea (Central Africa). In Leone, M. and Knauf, J. (eds.), Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism. Springer, New York, NY: 421–444.Google Scholar
González-Ruibal, A. and Moshenska, G. (eds.) (2015). Ethics and the Archaeology of Violence. Springer, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Graafstal, E. P. (2023). Roman ‘grand strategy’ in action? Claudius and the annexation of Britain and Thrace. Britannia 54: 23–50.Google Scholar
Griffiths, D. (2013). Augustus and the Roman Provinces of Iberia. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Liverpool.Google Scholar
Hanel, N. and Rothenhöfer, P. (2005). Germanisches Blei für Rom. Die Rolle des römischen Bergbaus im rechtsrheinischen Germanien im frühen Prinzipat. Germania 83: 53–65.Google Scholar
Hanson, W. S. (2007). Elginhaugh: A Flavian Fort and its Annexe. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, London.Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C. (ed.) (2016). Cartimandua’s Capital? The Late Iron Age Royal Site at Stanwick, North Yorkshire. Council for British Archaeology, York.Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C. (2019). The Gallic War in the chronology of Iron Age coinage. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 241–266.Google Scholar
Heinrichs, J. (2008). Die Eburonen, oder: Die Kunst des Überlebens. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 164: 203–230.Google Scholar
Hierro, J. A., Vidal, J. M., E. Peralta, E. Gutiérrez and Bolado, R. (2019). Primeras evidencias arqueológicas del asedio romano al castro de Las Labradas-El Marrón (Arrabalde, Zamora) durante el Bellum Astvricum. Estudios Humanísticos. Historia 17: 1–27.Google Scholar
Hill, J. D. (2006). Are we any closer to understanding how later Iron Age societies worked (or did not work)? In Haselgrove, C. (ed.), Celtes et Gaulois, l’Archéologie face à l’Histoire. Les mutations de la fin de l’âge du Fer. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne: 169–179.Google Scholar
Hillman, A. L., Abbott, M. B., Valero-Garcés, B., et al. (2017). Lead pollution resulting from Roman gold extraction in northwestern Spain. The Holocene 27(10): 1465–1474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. (2022). Conquering the Ocean: The Roman Invasion of Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. and Unwin, C. (2005). Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen. Hambledon and London, London.Google Scholar
Hornung, S. (2016). Siedlung und Bevölkerung in Ostgallien zwischen Gallischem Krieg und der Festigung der Römischen Herrschaft: Eine Studie auf Basis landschaftsarchäologischer Forschungen im Umfeld des Oppidums ‘Hunnenring’ von Otzenhausen (Lkr. St Wendel). Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Hornung, S. (2018). Tracing Julius Caesar: The Late Republican military camp at Hermeskeil and its historical context. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 193–203.Google Scholar
Hornung, S. (2021). Omni Gallia pacata. Die Anfänge der römischen Herrschaft am Rhein. In Claßen, E., Rind, M., Schürmann, T. and Trier, M. (eds.), Roms fliessende Grenzen. Theiss, Darmstadt: 85–93.Google Scholar
James, S. (2011). Rome & the Sword: How Warriors & Weapons Shaped Roman History. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Jiménez, A., Bermejo, J., Valdés, P., Moreno, F. and Tardio, K. (2020). Renewed work at the Roman camps at Renieblas near Numantia (2nd-1st c. B.C.). Journal of Roman Archaeology 33: 4–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. (2011). Roman Camps in Scotland. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Kehne, P. (2017). Germanicus und die Germanenfeldzüge 10 bis 16 n.Chr. In Asskamp, R. and Jansen, K. (eds.), Triumph ohne Sieg: Roms Ende in Germanien. Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt: 93–100.Google Scholar
Kehne, P. (2018). Zur Erforschung der Germanicusfeldzüge, zu den Ursachen für die Unmöglichkeit ihrer Rekonstruktion und zu den Problemen des Germanicus-Bildes. In Burmeister, S. and Ortisi, S. (eds.), Phantom Germanicus: Spurensuche zwischen historischer Überlieferung und archäologischem Befund. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf.: 31–94.Google Scholar
Kemmers, F. (2008). Marcus Agrippa and the earliest Roman fortress at Nijmegen: The coin finds from the Hunerberg. In García-Bellido, M. Paz, Mostalac, A. and Jiménez, A. (eds.), Del imperium de Pompeyo a la auctoritas de Augusto. Homenaje a Michael Grant. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid: 165–172.Google Scholar
Kiernan, B. (2007). Classical genocide and early modern memory. In Kiernan, B. (ed.), Blood and Soil. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT: 42–71.Google Scholar
Kiernan, B., Lemos, T. M. and Taylor, T. S. (eds.) (2023). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Volume 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kraus, C. S. (2009). Bellum Gallicum. In Griffin, M. (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar. Blackwell, Oxford: 159–174.Google Scholar
Lamb, A. W. (2018). The Belgae of Gaul and Britain: Revisiting cross-Channel contacts in the later Iron Age. In Pavúk, P., Klontza-Jaklová, V. and Harding, A. (eds.), ΕΥΔΑΙΜΩΝ. Studies in Honour of Jan Bouzek. Charles University, Prague: 335–357.Google Scholar
Lange, C. H. and Vervaet, F. J. (eds.) (2019). The Historiography of the Late Republican Civil War. Brill, Leiden.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavan, M. (2020). Devastation: The destruction of populations and human landscapes and the Roman imperial project. In Berthelot, K. (ed.), Reconsidering Roman Power. Publications de l’École française de Rome, Rome: 179–205.Google Scholar
Lefort, A., Baron, A., Blondel, F., Méniel, P. and Rottier, S. (2015). Artisanat, commerce et nécropole. Un port de La Tène D1 à Urville-Nacqueville. In Olmer, F. and Réjane, R. (eds.), Les Gaulois au fil de l’eau. Ausonius, Bordeaux: 481–514.Google Scholar
Lodwick, L. (2014). Condiments before Claudius: New plant foods at the late Iron Age oppidum at Silchester, UK. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23: 543–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Löhr, H. (2018). Les installations militaires tardorépublicaines sur le Petrisberg à Trèves. In Reddé, M. (ed.), Les armées romaines en Gaule à l’époque republicaine. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne: 135–152.Google Scholar
Martín-Hernández, E., Martínez-Velasco, A., Díaz, D., Muñoz Villarejo, F. and Bécares, L. (2020). Castrametación romana en la Meseta Norte hispana: nuevas evidencias de recintos militares en la vertiente meridional de la cordillera Cantábrica (provincias de Burgos y Palencia). Zephyrvs 86: 143–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maschek, D. (2018). Die römischen Bürgerkriege: Archäologie und Geschichte einer Krisenzeit. Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Maschek, D. (2021). How the Romans conquered and built their world, and why this matters. Journal of Roman Archaeology 34: 314–330.Google Scholar
Mata, K. (2019). Iron Age Slaving and Enslavement in Northwest Europe. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D. (2011). Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.Google Scholar
McCarthy, M. (2018). Carlisle: Function and change between the first and seventh centuries AD. Archaeological Journal 175(2): 292–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meller, H. (ed.) (2009). Schlachtfeldarchäologie – Battlefield Archaeology. Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Halle.Google Scholar
Menéndez-Blanco, A., García-Sánchez, J., Costa-García, J. M., et al. (2020). Following the Roman army between the southern foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains and the northern plains of Castile and León (North of Spain). Geosciences 10(12): 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10120485.Google Scholar
Metzler, J., Gaeng, C., Méniel, P., et al. (2018). Comptoir commercial italique et occupation militaire romaine dans l’oppidum du Titelberg. In Reddé, M. (ed.), L’armée romaine en Gaule à l’époque républicaine. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne: 179–205.Google Scholar
Meyer, M. (2013). Rhein-Weser-Germanen. Bemerkungen zur Genese und Interpretation. In Rasbach, G. (ed.), Westgermanische Bodenfunde. Römisch-Germanische Kommission, Frankfurt: 31–38.Google Scholar
Meyer, M. (2018). The Germanic-Roman battlefields of Kalkriese and Harzhorn. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 205–217.Google Scholar
Mignolo, W. (2011). The Darker Side of Western Modernity. Duke University Press, Durham.Google Scholar
Millett, M. and Wilmott, T. (2003). Rethinking Richborough. In Wilson, P. (ed.), The Archaeology of Roman Towns. Oxbow, Oxford: 184–194.Google Scholar
Moosbauer, G. (2018). Die vergessene Römerschlacht: Der sensationelle Fund am Harzhorn. Beck, Munich.Google Scholar
Morillo, A. (2014). Arqueología de la conquista del Norte peninsular. Nuevas interpretaciones sobre las campañas 26–25 a. C. In Cadiou, F. and Navarro-Caballero, M. (eds.), La guerre et ses traces. Conflits et sociétés en Hispanie à l’époque de la conquête romaine (IIIe-Ier s. a.C.). Ausonius, Bordeaux: 133–148.Google Scholar
Morillo, A. (2017). El periodo de la ‘Paz Armada’ en el norte de Hispania (19/15 a.C.-15/20 d.C.): ¿la creación de un sistema de defensa sin frontera? Gerión 35: 191–223.Google Scholar
Morillo, A., Adroher, A. M., Dobson, M. and Martín-Hernández, E. (2020). Constructing the archaeology of the Roman conquest of Hispania: New evidence, perspectives and challenges. Journal of Roman Archaeology 33: 36–52.Google Scholar
Morillo, A. and Sala, F. (2019). The Sertorian Wars in the conquest of Hispania: From data to archaeological assessment. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 49–72.Google Scholar
Noguera, J., Ble, E. and Valdés, P. (2013). La Segona Guerra Púnica al nord-est d’Ibèria. Societat Catalana d’Arqueologia, Barcelona.Google Scholar
Noguera, J., Valdés, P. and Ble, E. (2022). New perspectives on the Sertorian War in northeastern Hispania. Journal of Roman Archaeology 35: 1–32.Google Scholar
Nüsse, H.-J. (2014). Haus, Gehöft und Siedlung im Norden und Westen der Germania Magna. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf.Google Scholar
Paridaens, N. (2020). L’oppidum du ‘Bois du Grand Bon Dieu’ à Thuin. Résultats des recherches 2018–2019. LUNULA 28: 145–148.Google Scholar
Paridaens, N., Salesse, K., Müller, R., et al. (2020). Les balles de fronde en plomb découvertes sur l’oppidum de Thuin. Signa 9: 111–123.Google Scholar
Peralta, E. (2001). Die augusteische Belagerung von La Espina del Gallego (Kantabrien, Spanien). Germania 79: 21–42.Google Scholar
Peralta, E. (2003). Los Cántabros antes de Roma. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid.Google Scholar
Peralta, E. (2004). La conquista romana de Campoo: arqueología de las guerras cántabras. Cuadernos de Campoo 36: 28–42.Google Scholar
Peralta, E. (2015). El asedio de La Loma (Santibáñez de La Peña, Palencia) y otros campamentos romanos del norte de Castilla. In , J. Camino, Peralta, E. and Torres-Martínez, J. F. (eds.), Las Guerras Astur-Cántabras. KRK Ediciones, Gijón: 91–109.Google Scholar
Peralta, E., Camino, J. and Torres-Martínez, J. F. (2019). Recent research on the Cantabrian Wars: The archaeological reconstruction of a mountain war. Journal of Roman Archaeology 32: 421–438.Google Scholar
Peralta, E., Torres-Martínez, J. F. and Domínguez-Solera, S. (2022). Asedio de La Loma (Santibáñez de la Peña). Historia de las campañas de 2003 a 2018. Clan Editorial, Madrid.Google Scholar
Perea Yébenes, S. (2017). Triumphatores ex Hispania (36–26 a.C.) según los Fasti Triumphales. Gerión 35: 121–149.Google Scholar
Pernet, L. (2019). Fighting for Caesar. The archaeology and history of Gallic auxiliaries in the 2nd-1st centuries BC. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 179–199.Google Scholar
Polak, M. and Kooistra, L. (2013). A sustainable frontier? The establishment of the Roman frontier in the Rhine Delta. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 60: 355–458.Google Scholar
Pollard, T. and Banks, I. (eds.) (2005). Past Tense: Studies in the Archaeology of Conflict. Brill, Leiden.Google Scholar
Posluschny, A. and Schade-Lindig, S. (2019). Bergbau und Metallwirtschaft in der ausgehenden Latène- und der augusteischen Zeit östlich des Rheins. In Bödecker, S., Cott, E., Brüggler, M., et al. (eds.), Spätlatène- und frühkaiserzeitliche Archäologie zwischen Maas und Rhein. LVR-Amt für Bodendenkmalpflege im Rheinland, Bonn: 193–208.Google Scholar
Poux, M. (2004). L’âge du vin. Rites de boisson, festins et libations en Gaule indépendante. Éditions Monique Mergoil, Montagnac.Google Scholar
Poux, M. (ed.) (2008). Sur les traces de César: militaria tardo-républicains en contexte gaulois. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne.Google Scholar
Pujol, A., Fernández-Götz, M., Sala, R., et al. (2019). Archaeology of the Roman Civil Wars: The destruction of Puig Ciutat (Catalonia, Spain) and Caesar’s campaign in Ilerda (49 BC). In Fitzpatrick, and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 227–240.Google Scholar
Quesada, F. (2019). El ejército romano en la Península Ibérica: nuevos hallazgos y líneas de investigación (1997–2017). Índice Histórico Español 132: 121–167.Google Scholar
Quesada, F. (2021). El contexto cronológico e histórico de la destrucción del asentamiento ibérico en el Cerro de la Cruz (Almedinilla, Córdoba). Boletín de la Asociación Española de Amigos de la Arqueología 51: 166–211.Google Scholar
Quesada, F. and Moralejo-Ordax, J. (2020). Tras las huellas de Julio César: los campos de batalla cesarianos de Ulia/Montemayor y el hallazgo de un carro de época ibérica. In Actualidad de la investigación arqueológica en España II (2019–2020). Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid: 229–252.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, K. A. (ed.) (2017). The Landmark Julius Caesar. Pantheon Books, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, K. A. (2021). Caesar and genocide: Confronting the dark side of Caesar’s Gallic Wars. New England Classical Journal 48(1): 54–80.Google Scholar
Ralston, I. (2019). The Gauls on the eve of the Roman conquest. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 19–47.Google Scholar
Ramos, F. and Jiménez, F. (2015). Estrategia y logística de la conquista de la cornisa cantábrica, una operación previa a la campaña sobre la Gran Germania. In Camino, J., Peralta, E. and Torres-Martínez, J.F. (eds.), Las Guerras Astur-Cántabras. KRK Ediciones, Gijón: 305–321.Google Scholar
Reddé, M. (2018a). The battlefield of Alesia. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 183–191.Google Scholar
Reddé, M. (ed.) (2018b). L’armée romaine en Gaule à l’époque républicaine. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne.Google Scholar
Reddé, M. (2019). Recent archaeological research on Roman military engineering works of the Gallic War. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 91–112.Google Scholar
Reddé, M. (2022). Gallia Comata: La Gaule du Nord de l’indépendance à l’Empire romain. Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Rennes.Google Scholar
Reddé, M. and von Schnurbein, S. (eds.) (2001). Alésia. Fouilles et recherches franco-allemandes sur les travaux militaires romains autour du Mont-Auxois (1991–1997). L’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris.Google Scholar
Redfern, R. (2011). A re-appraisal of the evidence for violence in the Late Iron Age human remains from Maiden Castle Hillfort, Dorset, England. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 77: 111–138.Google Scholar
Redfern, R. (2020). Iron Age ‘predatory landscapes’: A bioarchaeological and funerary exploration of captivity and enslavement in Britain. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 30(4): 531–554.Google Scholar
Reid, J. (2023). The Eagle and the Bear: A New History of Roman Scotland. Birlinn, Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Reid, J., Müller, R. and Klein, S. (2022). The Windridge Farm glandes revisited. Britannia 53: 323–346.Google Scholar
Reid, J. and Nicholson, A. (2019). Burnswark Hill: The opening shot of the Antonine reconquest of Scotland? Journal of Roman Archaeology 32: 459–477.Google Scholar
Revell, L. (2009). Roman Imperialism and Local Identities. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Riggsby, A. (2006). Caesar in Gaul and Rome: War in Words. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.Google Scholar
Rost, A. and Wilbers-Rost, S. (2018). Die Knochengruben auf dem Oberesch in Kalriese – zum Spannungsverhältnis zwischen archäologischem Befund und antiken Schriftquellen. In Burmeister, S. and Ortisi, S. (eds.), Phantom Germanicus: Spurensuche zwischen historischer Überlieferung und archäologischem Befund. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf: 147–160.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (1990). Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul. An Anthropological Perspective. Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (2004). Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roymans, N. (2011). Ethnic recruitment, returning veterans and the diffusion of Roman culture among rural populations in the Rhineland frontier zone. In Roymans, N. and Derks, T. (eds.), Villa Landscapes in the Roman North. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam: 139–160.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (2018). A Roman massacre in the far north. Caesar’s annihilation of the Tencteri and Usipetes in the Dutch River area. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 167–181.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (2019a). Conquest, mass violence and ethnic stereotyping. Investigating Caesar’s actions in the Germanic frontier zone. Journal of Roman Archaeology 32: 439–458.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (2019b). Late Iron Age coin hoards with silver rainbow staters from Graetheide (NL) and the mid-1st century BC hoard horizon in the Lower Rhine / Meuse region. Germania 97: 65–92.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (2023). The Cimbrian migration conceived as an expression of societal stress caused by soil degradation in the Northwest-European Plain. In Guichard, V. (ed.), Continuités et discontinuités à la fin du IIe siècle avant notre ère dans l’espace celtique et à sa périphérie. Centre archéologique européen, Glux-en-Glenne: 227–240.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. (in prep.). Ethnic Recruitment and the Genesis of the Batavians as a Soldiering People: The Numismatic Evidence. Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. and Fernández-Götz, M. (2018). The archaeology of warfare and mass violence in ancient Europe. An introduction. In Fernández-Götz, M. and Roymans, N. (eds.), Conflict Archaeology: Materialities of Collective Violence from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Routledge, Abingdon: 1–10.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. and Fernández-Götz, M. (2019). Reconsidering the Roman conquest: New archaeological perspectives. Journal of Roman Archaeology 32: 415–420.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. and Fernández-Götz, M. (2023). The archaeology of Julius Caesar: New research on the Gallic Wars. In Jacobsen, J.K., Raja, R. and Saxkjær, S. Grove (eds.), Caesar, Rome and Beyond. Brepols, Turnhout: 51–69.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. and Habermehl, D. (2023). Migration and ethnic dynamics in the Lower Rhine frontier zone of the expanding Roman Empire (60 BC-AD 20): A historical-anthropological perspective. In Fernández-Götz, M., Nimura, C., Stockhammer, P. and Cartwright, R. (eds.), Rethinking Migrations in Late Prehistoric Eurasia. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 292–312.Google Scholar
Roymans, N. and Scheers, S. (2012). Eight gold hoards from the Low Countries. A synthesis. In Roymans, N., Creemers, G. and Scheers, S., S. (eds.), Late Iron Age Gold Hoards from the Low Countries and the Caesarian Conquest of Northern Gaul. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam: 1–46.Google Scholar
Rudnick, B. (2017). Die Germanenkriege des Augustus 12 v. bis 10 n.Chr. in der archäologischen Überlieferung. In Asskamp, R. and Jansen, K. (eds.), Triumph ohne Sieg. Roms Ende in Germanien. Philipp von Zabern, Darmstadt: 81–92.Google Scholar
Ruiz Zapatero, G. (2016). Los pueblos prerromanos al servicio de la Dictadura Franquista (1939–1956). In Martín, F. J. Moreno (ed.), El franquismo y la apropiación del pasado. Editorial Pablo Iglesias, Madrid: 45–66.Google Scholar
Russell, M. (2019). Mythmakers of Maiden Castle: Breaking the siege mentality of an Iron Age hillfort. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 38(3): 325–342.Google Scholar
Sánchez-Palencia, F. J. (ed.) (2000). Las Médulas (León). Instituto Leonés de Cultura, León.Google Scholar
Santos, B. de Sousa (2016). Epistemologies of the South and the future. From the European South 1: 17–29.Google Scholar
Sauer, E. (2002). The Roman invasion of Britain (AD 43) in imperial perspective. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21(4): 333–363.Google Scholar
Sauer, E., Cooper, N., Dannell, G., et al. (2000). Alchester, a Claudian ‘vexillation fortress’ near the western boundary of the Catuvellauni: New light on the Roman invasion of Britain. Archaeological Journal 157(1): 1–78.Google Scholar
Saunders, N. (ed.) (2012). Beyond the Dead Horizon: Studies in Modern Conflict Archaeology. Oxbow, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheper-Hughes, N. and Bourgois, P. (eds.) (2004). Violence in War and Peace. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Schulze-Forster, J. (2002). Die latènezeitliche Funde vom Dünsberg. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Philipps-Universität Marburg.Google Scholar
Scott, D., Babits, L. and Haecker, C. (eds.) (2009). Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War. Potomac Books, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Scott, D., Fox, R., Connor, M. and Harmon, D. (1989). Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.Google Scholar
Scott, D. and McFeaters, A. P. (2011). The archaeology of historic battlefields. Journal of Archaeological Research 19: 103–132.Google Scholar
Setién, J. and Cisneros, M. (2023). Archeometrical study of metallic remains from ‘La Ulaña’ archeological site. Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis 12: 327–348.Google Scholar
Sharples, N. (2014). Are the developed hillforts of southern England urban? In Fernández-Götz, M., Wendling, H. and Winger, K. (eds.), Paths to Complexity: Centralisation and Urbanisation in Iron Age Europe. Oxbow, Oxford: 224–232.Google Scholar
Shaw, B. D. (in press). The exterminating angel: The Roman imperial state and its indigenous peoples. In Yarbrough, F. and Maas, M. (eds.), States and Their Indigenous Peoples. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Siegmüller, A. (2018). Zeiten des Umbruchs. Landschaftsveränderungen um Christi Geburt im Emsmündungsgebiet und die Folgen für die Siedlungsstrukturen. In Burmeister, S. and Ortisi, S. (eds.), Phantom Germanicus: Spurensuche zwischen historischer Überlieferung und archäologischem Befund. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf.: 319–333.Google Scholar
Silva-Sánchez, N. and Armada, X.-L. (2023). Environmental impact of Roman mining and metallurgy and its correlation with the archaeological evidence: A European perspective. Environmental Archaeology. https://doi.org/10.1080/14614103.2023.2181295.Google Scholar
Slofstra, J. (2002). Batavians and Romans on the Lower Rhine: The Romanisation of a frontier area. Archaeological Dialogues 9: 16–38 & 55–57.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, A. (2017). Urbanism: A view from the south. In Stoddart, S. (ed.), Delicate Urbanism in Context: Settlement Nucleation in Pre-Roman Germany. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge: 115–116.Google Scholar
Stewart, D., Cheetham, P. and Russell, M. (2020). A magnetometry survey of the Second Augustan Legionary fortress at Lake Farm, Dorset. Britannia 51: 307–317.Google Scholar
Taylor, T. S. (2023). Caesar’s Gallic genocide. A case study in ancient mass violence. In Kiernan, B., Lemos, T. M. and Taylor, T. S. (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 309–329.Google Scholar
Thurston, T. L. and Fernández-Götz, M. (eds.) (2021). Power from Below in Premodern Societies: The Dynamics of Political Complexity in the Archaeological Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Torres-Martínez, J. F., Fernández-Götz, M., Martínez-Velasco, A. and Vacas, D. (2019). La romanización de la Montaña Palentina: el yacimiento hispano-romano de la Huerta Varona (Aguilar de Campoo). Colección de Historia de la Montaña Palentina 11: 155–214.Google Scholar
Torres-Martínez, J. F., Fernández-Götz, M., Martínez-Velasco, A., Vacas, D. and Rodríguez-Millán, E. (2016). From the Bronze Age to the Roman conquest: The oppidum of Monte Bernorio (northern Spain). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 82: 363–382.Google Scholar
Torrione, M. (2018). Dessobriga: oppidum vacceo, mansio altoimperial … una búsqueda en curso. In Mínguez, C. Sanz and Blanco García, J. F. (eds.), Novedades arqueológicas en cuatro ciudades vacceas. Centro de Estudios Vacceos Federico Wattenberg, Valladolid: 31–48.Google Scholar
Torrione, M. and Cahanier, S. (2014). Una moneda gala en el horizonte de las Guerras Cántabras. Sautuola 19: 283–298.Google Scholar
Van Wees, H. (2010). Genocide in the ancient world. In Bloxham, D. and Moses, A. D. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 239–258.Google Scholar
Von See, K. (1981). Der Germane als Barbar. Jahrbuch für Internationale Germanistik 13: 42–72.Google Scholar
Wallace, L. (2016). The early Roman horizon. In Millett, M., Revell, L. and Moore, A. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 117–133.Google Scholar
Webster, J. (1999). At the end of the world: Druidic and other revitalization movements in post-conquest Gaul and Britain. Britannia 30: 1–20.Google Scholar
Wilbers-Rost, S. and Rost, A. (2012). Kalkriese 6. Die Verteilung der Kleinfunde auf dem Oberesch in Kalkriese. Römisch-Germanische Forschungen 70, Mainz.Google Scholar
Wilbers-Rost, S. and Rost, A. (2015). Looting and scrapping at the ancient battlefield of Kalkriese (9 A.D.). In Bellón, J. P., Ruiz, A., Molinos, M., Rueda, C. and Gómez, F. (eds.), La Segunda Guerra Púnica en la Península Ibérica: Baecula, arqueología de una batalla. Universidad de Jaén, Jaén: 639–650.Google Scholar
Woolf, G. (2019). The Gallic Wars in Roman history. In Fitzpatrick, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds.), Julius Caesar’s Battle for Gaul: New Archaeological Perspectives. Oxbow, Oxford: 9–18.Google Scholar
Woolliscroft, D. J. and Hoffmann, B. (2006). Rome’s First Frontier: The Flavian Occupation of Northern Scotland. Tempus, Stroud.Google Scholar
Zelle, M. (2015). Arminius – Cheruskerfürst und deutscher Held. In Boschung, D., Busch, A. W. and Versluys, M. J. (eds.), Re-Inventing the Invention of Tradition. Indigenous Pasts and the Roman Present. Morphomata 32, Paderborn: 45–66.Google Scholar