This paper examines the philosophy and practice of programs that aim to maintain, renew, or revive Aboriginal languages in Australia. I focus here on languages, mainly those of urban and rural rather than remote areas, for which there are few if any fluent speakers left. I will refer to them as dead or dying languages although I am aware that in the Aboriginal tradition people consider themselves to own languages that neither they themselves nor their dose kin speak, and that this ownership is very much a part of a living culture. I begin by reviewing some basic issues that arise in planning language programs for such languages. The final section considers some of the factors affecting the success of such programs.

In the Torres Straits, the cultural agenda, along with the push to move away from English as the language of instruction, has not been met with uniform enthusiasm by all Islanders. For many there has been a growing sense of disquiet and continuing frustration about the preoccupations with liberal humanist agendas in Islander education, and the ongoing low levels of educational outcomes (Nakata, 1994a; Nakata, Jensen and Nakata, in prep.). As interesting as the writings in education (Orr and Williamson, 1973; Finch, 1975; Langbridge, 1977; Orr, 1977, 1979; Osborne, 1979; Cunnington, 1984; Kale, 1987,1988; Castley and Osborne, 1988; Castley, 1988; Williamson, 1990) are to some people, they contribute little towards an understanding of our difficulties as we, Torres Strait Islanders, experience schooling, and thus contribute little towards a platform for improving our current or future educational outcomes.

One of the early missionaries at Milingimbi is said to have rounded up men from a ceremony and hosed off the sacred designs they had painted on their chests. I have often been told that story, always by Balanda1 usually as a way of illustrating how terrible missionaries can be. Ali the same, other Balanda in other places were often a lot worse. Missionaries for example did not poison water holes and flour. Moreover the missionaries were not always feared or distrusted.

The following paper was presented to a group of teachers, curriculum advisers, school support centre personnel and review officers at a one day conference organised by the Metropolitan West Region of the Queensland Department of Education. The time allocated for this session was 35 minutes. I therefore decided to focus on what I consider to be the two major barriers to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander student participation in schooling: recognition and valuing by teachers of children's identity and language. For other factors contributing to children's participation, such as curriculum relevance, parent/community involvement in decision-making, I provided participants with handouts which I had developed during the past four years or so.