¹ Stark, Rodney and Finke, Roger, Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000)Google Scholar

² Abernethy, David B., The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 226Google Scholar

³ Forbes, Geraldine, ‘In Search of the “Pure Heathen”: Missionary Women in Nineteenth Century India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 21 (1986), 2–8 Google Scholar

⁴ Porter, Andrew, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar

Cox, Jeffrey, Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in India, 1818–1940 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002)Google Scholar

⁵ Trejo, Guillermo, ‘Religious Competition and Ethnic Mobilization in Latin America: Why the Catholic Church Promotes Indigenous Movements in Mexico’, American Political Science Review, 103 (2009), 323–342 Google Scholar

Gallego, Francisco A. and Woodberry, Robert, ‘Christian Missionaries and Education in Former Colonies: How Institutions Mattered’ (unpublished manuscript no. 339, Instituto de Economia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2008)Google Scholar

Bolt, Jutta and Bezemer, Dirk, ‘Understanding Long-Run African Growth: Colonial Institutions or Colonial Education? Evidence from a New Data Set’ (unpublished paper, University of Groningen, 2008)Google Scholar

Woodberry, Robert D., ‘The Shadow of Empire: Christian Missions, Colonial Policy, and Democracy in Postcolonial Societies’, (doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina, 2004)Google Scholar

Woodberry, Robert D., ‘Weber through the Back Door: Protestant Competition, Elite Power Dispersion, and the Global Spread of Democracy’, American Political Science Review, 106 (2012), 244–274 Google Scholar

Posner, Daniel N., ‘The Colonial Origins of Ethnic Cleavages: The Case of Linguistic Divisions in Zambia’, Comparative Politics, 35 (2003), 127–146 Google Scholar

⁶ Frykenberg, Robert Eric, ed., Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500, with Special Reference to Caste, Conversion, and Colonialism (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), pp. 1–32Google Scholar

Stanley, Brian, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Leicester: Apollos, 1990)Google Scholar

Bellenoit, Hayden J. A., ‘Missionary Education, Religion and Knowledge in India, c.1880–1915’, Modern Asian Studies, 41 (2007), 369–394 Google Scholar

Savage, David W., ‘Missionaries and the Development of a Colonial Ideology of Female Education in India’, Gender and History, 9 (1997), 201–221 Google Scholar

⁷ Tembon, Mercy and Fort, Lucia, eds, Girls’ Education in the 21st Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2008), pp. 53–66Google Scholar

Krishna, Anirudh, ‘Enhancing Political Participation in Democracies: What Is the Role of Social Capital?’ Comparative Political Studies, 35 (2002), 437–460 Google Scholar

Gleason, Susan, ‘Female Political Participation and Health in India’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 573 (2001), 105–126 Google Scholar

Brown, David S., ‘Democracy and Gender Inequality in Education: A Cross-National Examination’, British Journal of Political Science, 34 (2004), 137–152 Google Scholar

Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra and Duflo, Esther, ‘Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment in India’, Econometrica, 72 (2004), 1409–1443 Google Scholar

Beaman, Lori, Duflo, Esther, Pande, Rohina and Topalova, Petia, ‘Women Politicians, Gender Bias, and Policy-Making in Rural India’ (background paper for The State of the World's Children 2007, UNICEF, 2006)Google Scholar

⁸ Porter, ‘Religion’; Cox, Imperial Fault Lines.

⁹ Berger, Peter L., The Social Reality of Religion (London: Faber and Faber, 1969)Google Scholar

¹⁰ Eisenstadt, S. N., ed., The Protestant Ethic and Modernization: A Comparative View (New York: Basic Books, 1968)Google Scholar

David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (Little, Brown, 1998)Google Scholar

¹¹ Lipset, Seymour Martin, ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy’, American Political Science Review, 53 (1959), pp. 69–105 Google Scholar

Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996)Google Scholar

Stepan, Alfred, ‘Religion, Democracy, and the “Twin Tolerations” ’, Journal of Democracy, 11 (2000), 37–57 Google Scholar

Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Thomas Nugent (New York: Hafner Press, 1949)Google Scholar

¹² Barro, Robert J., ‘Determinants of Democracy’, Journal of Political Economy, 107 (1999), 158–183 CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lipset, Seymour Martin, Seong, Kyoung-Ryung and Torres, John Charles, ‘A Comparative Analysis of the Social Requisites of Democracy’, International Social Science Journal, 45 (1993), 155–175 Google Scholar

¹³ Abernethy, Dynamics of Global Dominance.

¹⁴ Bollen, Kenneth A. and Jackman, Robert W., ‘Economic and Noneconomic Determinants of Political Democracy in the 1960s’, Research in Political Sociology, 1 (1985), 27–48 Google Scholar

Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, José Antonio and Limongi, Fernando, Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)Google Scholar

Bernhard, Michael, Reenock, Christopher and Nordstrom, Timothy, ‘The Legacy of Western Overseas Colonialism on Democratic Survival’, International Studies Quarterly, 48 (2004), 225–250 Google Scholar

Arat, Zehra F., Democracy and Human Rights in Developing Countries (Boulder. Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991)Google Scholar

Lange, Matthew K., ‘British Colonial Legacies and Political Development’, World Development, 32 (2004), 905–922 Google Scholar

Diamond, Larry, Linz, Juan J. and Lipset, Seymour Martin, eds, Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Vol. 3 (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989)Google Scholar

Weiner, Myron and Ozbudun, E., eds, Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, N.C.: AEI/Duke, 1987)Google Scholar

¹⁵ Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez de Silanez, Andrei Schleifer and Robert Vishny, ‘The Quality of Government’ (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998)Google Scholar

Treisman, Daniel, ‘The Causes of Corruption: A Cross-National Study’, Journal of Public Economics, 76 (2000), 399–457 Google Scholar

¹⁶ Acemoglu, Daron, Johnson, Simon and Robinson, James A., ‘The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation’, American Economic Review, 91 (2001), 1369–1401 Google Scholar

¹⁷ Banerjee, Abhijit and Iyer, Lakshmi, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India’, American Economic Review, 95 (2005), 1190–1213 Google Scholar

¹⁸ McArthur, John W. and Sachs, Jeffrey, ‘Institutions and Geography: Comment on Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson (2000)’ (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper no. 8114, 2001)Google Scholar

¹⁹ Benavot, Aaron and Riddle, Phyllis, ‘The Expansion of Primary Education, 1870–1940: Trends and Issues’, Sociology of Education, 61 (1988), 191–210 Google Scholar

Grier, Robin M., ‘Colonial Legacies and Economic Growth’, Public Choice, 98 (1999), 317–335 Google Scholar

Brown, David S., ‘Democracy, Colonization, and Human Capital in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Studies in Comparative International Development, 35 (2000), 20–40 Google Scholar

²⁰ Bolt and Bezemer, ‘Understanding Long-Run African Growth’.

²¹ Young, Lawrence A., ed., Rational Choice Theory and Religion: Summary and Assessment (New York: Routledge, 1996)Google Scholar

Gill, Anthony, Rendering unto Caesar: The Catholic Church and the State in Latin America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998)Google Scholar

²² Putnam, Robert, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993)Google Scholar

²³ Berger, Social Reality, p. 134Google Scholar

²⁴ Berger, Social Reality, p. 134Google Scholar

²⁵ Berger, Social Reality, p. 138Google Scholar

²⁶ Berger, Social Reality, p. 138Google Scholar

²⁷ Berger, Social Reality.

²⁸ Gerth, H. H. and Mills, C. Wright, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London: Routledge, 1995)Google Scholar

²⁹ Eisenstadt, S. N., ed., The Protestant Ethic and Modernization: A Comparative View (New York: Basic Books, 1968)Google Scholar

Walzer, Michael, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965)Google Scholar

³⁰ Walzer, Revolution of the Saints.

³¹ Berger, Social Reality.

³² Eisenstadt, ‘Protestant Ethic Thesis’, pp. 15–20Google Scholar

³³ Weber, ‘Protestant Sects’, p. 305Google Scholar

³⁴ Trejo, ‘Religious Competition’.

³⁵ Chesnut, R. Andrew, Competitive Spirits: Latin America's New Religious Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar

³⁶ Gallego and Woodberry, ‘Christian Missionaries’.

³⁷ Trejo, ‘Religious Competition’.

³⁸ Iannaccone, ‘Rational Choice’.

³⁹ Koch, Fred C., The Volga Germans in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the Present (London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977)Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Bellenoit, ‘Missionary Education’.

⁴¹ Frykenberg, Robert Eric, ed., Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500, with Special Reference to Caste, Conversion, and Colonialism (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003)Google Scholar

⁴² Ramusack, Barbara, ‘Cultural Missionaries, Maternal Imperialists, Feminist Allies: British Women Activists in India, 1865–1945’, Women's Studies International Forum, 13 (1990), 309–321 Google Scholar

Kent, Eliza F., ‘Tamil Bible Women and the Zenana Missions of Colonial South India’, History of Religions, 39 (1999), 117–149 Google Scholar

⁴³ Nurullah, Syed and Naik, J. P., A History of Education in India (During the British Period) (Bombay: Macmillan, 1951)Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Mani, Lata, Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998)Google Scholar

Juergensmeyer, Mark, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement against Untouchability in 20th-Century Punjab (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982)Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Frykenberg, ‘Introduction’; Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision.

⁴⁶ Nurullah and Naik, History of Education; Frykenberg, ‘Christians in India’.

⁴⁷ Frykenberg, ‘Christians in India’.

⁴⁸ Nurullah and Naik, History of Education; Stanley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries; Frykenberg, ‘Christians in India’.

⁴⁹ Nurullah and Naik, History of Education.

⁵⁰ Commission of Inquiry, Village Education in India (London: Oxford University Press, 1920).

⁵¹ Nurullah and Naik, History of Education.

⁵² Kamat, A. R., ‘Women's Education and Social Change in India’, Social Scientist, 5 (1976), 3–27 Google Scholar

⁵³ Commission of Inquiry, Village Education.

⁵⁴ Hutton, J. H., Census of India, 1931, Vol. I (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1933)Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Savage, David W., ‘Missionaries and the Development of a Colonial Ideology of Female Education in India’, Gender and History, 9 (1997), 201–221 Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Marten, J. T., Census of India, 1921; Part I –Report, Vol. I (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1924)Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Hutton, Census of India, 1931.

⁵⁸ Nossiter, T. J., Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation (London: C. Hurst, 1982)Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Hutton, Census of India, 1931.

⁶⁰ Census of India, 2001. See http://censusindia.gov.in/.

⁶¹ Bayly, Susan, Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989)Google Scholar

⁶² Frykenberg, ‘Christians in India’.

⁶³ Mathew, E. T., ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala: State Intervention, Missionary Initiatives and Social Movements’, Economic and Political Weekly, 34 (1999), 2811–2820 Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Cited in Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala’, p. 2814.

⁶⁵ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala’.

⁶⁶ Desai, Manali, ‘Indirect British Rule, State Formation, and Welfarism in Kerala, India, 1860–1957’, Social Science History, 29 (2005), 457–488 Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Bayly, Muslims and Christians.

⁶⁸ Desai, ‘Indirect British Rule’, p. 470Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala’.

⁷⁰ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala’; Ramusack, ‘Cultural Missionaries’.

⁷¹ Though some Protestant missionaries defended caste hierarchy in church practice; Frykenberg, ‘Introduction’.

⁷² Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy in Kerala’.

⁷³ Ramusack, ‘Cultural Missionaries’; Forbes, ‘In Search of the “Pure Heathen” ’; Kent, ‘Tamil Bible Women’.

⁷⁴ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁷⁵ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’, p. 2812Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁷⁷ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁷⁸ Sengupta, Parna, ‘An Object Lesson in Colonial Pedagogy’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 45 (2003), 96–121 Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁸⁰ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁸¹ Kothari, ed., Caste in Indian Politics (New York: Gordon and Breach, Science Publishers, 1970)Google Scholar

⁸² Hardgrave, ‘Political Paricipation and Primordial Solidarity’; Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision; Frykenberg, ‘Introduction’.

⁸³ Commission of Inquiry, Village Education.

⁸⁴ Bayly, Muslims and Christians.

⁸⁵ Bayly, Muslims and Christians, p. 314Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Bayly, Muslims and Christians.

⁸⁷ Kooiman, p. 82, cited in Desai, ‘Indirect British Rule’, p. 477.

⁸⁸ Bayly, Muslims and Christians, pp. 448Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Desai, ‘Indirect British Rule’.

⁹⁰ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’, p. 2815Google Scholar

⁹¹ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’, p. 2815Google Scholar

⁹² Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’, p. 2815Google Scholar

⁹³ Bayly, Muslims and Christians; Geoffrey A. Oddie, ‘Constructing “Hinduism”: The Impact of the Protestant Missionary Movement on Hindu Self-Understanding’, in Frykenberg, ed., Christians and Missionaries.

⁹⁴ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁹⁵ Cited in Desai, ‘Indirect British Rule’, p. 471.

⁹⁶ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁹⁷ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

⁹⁸ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’; Hutton, Census of India, 1931.

⁹⁹ Mathew, ‘Growth of Literacy’.

¹⁰⁰ Nossiter, Communism.

¹⁰¹ R. P. Singh and Jayant Kumar Banthia, India Administrative Atlas, 1872–2001: A Historical Perspective of Evolution of Districts and States in India (Delhi: Controller of Publications, 2004).

¹⁰² These districts are part of the following administrative territories: Ajmer-Merwara, Assam, Baroda, Bengal proper, Berar, Bihar, Bombay, Central India Agency, Central Provinces, Chota Nagpur, Cochin State, Coorg, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Madras, Mysore, North-West Frontier Province and Punjab, Orissa, Rajputana Agency, Travancore, and United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.

¹⁰³ Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Pondicherry. Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli were annexed by the Indian government in 1961. Pondicherry was ceded by the French in 1956.

¹⁰⁴ Hill, M. Anne and King, Elizabeth M., eds., Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Plantenga, Janneke, Remery, Chantal, Figueiredo, Hugo and Smith, Mark, ‘Towards an EU Gender Equality Index’ (Vredenburg: Utrecht School of Economics/UMIST, 2001)Google Scholar

Dijkstra, Geske A. and Hanmer, Lucia C., ‘Measuring Socioeconomic Gender Inequality: Towards an Alternative to the UNDP Gender-Related Index’, Feminist Economics, 6 (2000), 41–75 Google Scholar

Hausmann, Ricardo, Tyson, Laura D. and Zahidi, Saadia, The Global Gender Gap Report (Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2009)Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Tembon, Mercy and Fort, Lucia, eds, Girls’ Education in the 21st Century: Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Economic Growth (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2008)Google Scholar

Benavot, Aaron, ‘Education, Gender, and Economic Development: A Cross-National Study’, Sociology of Education, 62 (1989), 14–32 Google Scholar

Stromquist, Nelly P., ‘Gender Inequality in Education: Accounting for Women's Subordination’, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 11 (1990), 137–153 Google Scholar

Stromquist, Nelly P., ‘Women and Illiteracy: The Interplay of Gender Subordination and Poverty’, Comparative Education Review, 34 (1990), 95–111 Google Scholar

Sen, Amartya, Development as Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Hausmann et al., Global Gender Gap; King and Hill, ‘Women's Education in Developing Countries’.

¹⁰⁸ King and Hill, ‘Women's Education in Developing Countries’, p. 19Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Sen, Amartya, Resources, Values and Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984)Google Scholar

Anand, Sudhir and Sen, Amartya, ‘Gender Inequality and Human Development: Theories and Measurement’ (United Nations, 1995)Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Sen, Resources; King and Hill, ‘Women's Education in Developing Countries’.

¹¹¹ In Table 1, colonial status also has a positive and statistically significant effect on female literacy.

¹¹² Hutton, Census of India, 1931, p. 324Google Scholar

¹¹³ Missing data on educational expenditure have been supplied from the University of Chicago Digital South Asia Library http://dsal.uchicago.edu/ (15 June 2010).

¹¹⁴ Barro, Bobert, ‘Economic Growth in a Cross-Section of Countries’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106 (1991), 407–443 Google Scholar

Easterly, William and Levine, Ross, ‘Africa's Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112 (1997), 1203–1250 Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Acemoglu et al., ‘Colonial Origins’.

¹¹⁶ Hutton, Census of India, 1931.

¹¹⁷ Menon, V. P., Integration of the Indian States (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1985)Google Scholar

Fisher, Michael H., Indirect Rule in India: Residents and the Residency System 1764–1858 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991)Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Bhagavan, Manu Belur, Sovereign Spheres: Princes, Education, and Empire in Colonial India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Hardgrave, The Nadars; Bayly, Muslims and Christians.

¹²⁰ Reeve Vanneman and Douglas Barnes, ‘Indian District Data, 1961–1991: machine-readable data file and codebook.’(2000) http://www.inform.umd.edu/~districts/index.html. College Park, Maryland: Center on Population, Gender, and Social Inequality (20 May 2010).

¹²¹ We are grateful to Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer for sharing their data.

¹²² Brown, David S., ‘Reading, Writing, and Regime Type: Democracy's Impact on Primary School Enrollment’, Political Research Quarterly, 52 (1999), 681–707 Google Scholar

Stasavage, David, ‘Democracy and Education Spending in Africa’, American Journal of Political Science, 49 (2005), 343–358 Google Scholar

Baum, Matthew A. and Lake, David A., ‘The Political Economy of Growth: Democracy and Human Capital’, American Journal of Political Science, 47 (2003), 333–334 Google Scholar

Kaufman, Robert R. and Segura-Ubiergo, Alex, ‘Globalization, Domestic Politics, and Social Spending in Latin America: A Time-Series Cross-Section Analysis, 1973–97’, World Politics, 53 (2001), 553–587 Google Scholar

¹²³ Beer, Caroline and Mitchell, Neil J., ‘Comparing Nations and States: Human Rights and Democracy in India’, Comparative Political Studies, 39 (2006), 996–1018 Google Scholar

Varshney, Ashutosh, ‘Is India Becoming More Democratic?’ Journal of Asian Studies, 59 (2000), 3–25 Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Iyer, Lakshmi, ‘Direct Versus Indirect Colonial Rule in India: Long-Term Consequences’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 92 (2010), 693–713 Google Scholar

¹²⁵ There are missing data on post-colonial educational expenditure in Kashmir.

¹²⁶ Banerjee and Iyer, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance’.

¹²⁷ Correlation matrixes for the colonial and post-colonial variables are available from the authors upon request.

¹²⁸ Harrison, Glen W., ‘House Money Effects in Public Good Experiments: Comment’, Experimental Economics, 10 (2007), 429–437 Google Scholar

Zorn, Christopher J. W., ‘Generalized Estimating Equation Models for Correlated Data: A Review with Applications’, American Journal of Political Science 45 (2001), 470–490)Google Scholar

¹²⁹ MacKinnon, James G., and White, Halbert, ‘Some Heteroskedastic-Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimators with Improved Finite Sample Properties’, Journal of Econometrics, 29 (1985), 305–325 Google Scholar

¹³⁰ In this and post-colonial analysis the colonial status variable has not been logged because it is a dummy variable.

¹³¹ Banerjee and Iyer, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance’.

¹³² Banerjee and Iyer, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance’.

¹³³ Andrew R. Chesnut, Competitive Spirits: Latin America's New Religious Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar

¹³⁴ Discussed in Frykenberg, ‘Introduction’, p. 9.

¹³⁵ Frykenberg, ed., Christians and Missionaries, pp. 127–154Google Scholar

¹³⁶ Commission of Inquiry, Village Education.

¹³⁷ Jeffrey, Robin, ‘Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate’, Pacific Affairs, 60 (1987), 447–472 Google Scholar

Heller, Patrick, ‘Degrees of Democracy: Some Comparative Lessons from India’, World Politics, 52 (2000), 484–519 Google Scholar

Subramanian, Narendra, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens, and Democracy in South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar

¹³⁸ Lipset, Seong and Torres, ‘Comparative Analysis’; Barro, ‘Determinants’. The Appendix Table 4 shows though that colonial status positively affects overall literacy levels in the post-colonial, though not colonial period.

¹³⁹ Chaudhary, Latika, ‘Determinants of Primary Schooling in British India’, Journal of Economic History, 69 (2009), 269–302 Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ Banerjee and Iyer, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance’.