¹ Riham Alkousaa, “Three Syrians Arrested in Germany and France for Suspected Crimes against Humanity,” Reuters, February 13, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/uk-germany-syria-idUKKCN1Q21GV.

² Cathrin Schaer, “Prosecuting Syrian War-Crimes Suspects from Berlin,” Atlantic, July 31, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/07/can-germany-convict-syrian-war-criminals/595054/.

³ Ibid.

⁴ Emma Graham-Harrison, “‘My Goal Is Justice for All Syrians’: One Man's Journey from Jail to Witness for the Prosecution,” Guardian, December 12, 2020, www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/12/my-goal-is-justice-for-all-syrians-one-mans-journey-from-jail-to-witness-for-the-prosecution.

⁵ Whether states have the right to exercise universal jurisdiction for the crime of aggression under customary international law is debated. See Scharf, Michael P., “Universal Jurisdiction and the Crime of Aggression,” Harvard International Law Journal 43, no. 2 (Summer 2012), pp. 357–89Google Scholar.

⁶ Mann, Itamar, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction: Towards a Jurisprudence for the ‘Court of Critique,’” Transnational Legal Theory 1, no. 4 (December 2010), pp. 485–521CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Hovell, Devika, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” European Journal of International Law 29, no. 2 (May 2018), pp. 427–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mégret, Frédéric, “The ‘Elephant in the Room’ in Debates about Universal Jurisdiction: Diasporas, Duties of Hospitality, and the Constitution of the Political,” Transnational Legal Theory 6, no. 1 (2015), pp. 89–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ O'Keefe, Roger, “Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic Concept,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 2, no. 3 (2004), pp. 735–60, at p. 745CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Reydams, Luc, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspectives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Princeton Project on Universal Jurisdiction, The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction (Princeton, N.J.: Program in Law and Public Affairs, Princeton University, 2001), p. 17.

¹⁰ Hovell, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 431. See, for example, Article 5, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, December 10, 1984. The principle of “prosecute or extradite” (aut dedere aut judicare) is not, in the strictest sense, conceptually equivalent to the idea that jurisdiction over certain crimes is universal. Nevertheless, it has been interpreted to support UJ. For further discussion, see Bassiouni, M. Cherif, “Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Practice,” Virginia Journal of International Law 42, no. 1 (January 2001), p. 123Google Scholar.

¹¹ While in the Arrest Warrant case of 2000, judges at the International Court of Justice argued that an assessment of national legislation suggests that the only clear consensus in UJ is over the crime of piracy, not the “core” international crimes, scholarly discourse on UJ has pointed out that state practice has evolved greatly in favor of UJ's existence over the subsequent decades. See Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, 2002 I.C.J. (Feb. 14) (joint separate opinions of Judges Higgins, Kooijmans, and Buergenthal), paras. 44, 45, 50; and Kreß, Claus, “Universal Jurisdiction over International Crimes and the Institut de Droit International,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 4, no. 3 (July 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Langer, Máximo and Eason, Mackenzie, “The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction,” European Journal of International Law 30, no. 3 (August 2019), pp. 779–817CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² The 2012 survey is the most comprehensive survey of domestic UJ legislation available to date. See Amnesty International, Universal Jurisdiction: A Preliminary Survey of Legislations around the World—2012 Update, IOR 53/019/2012 (London: Amnesty International Publications, October 9, 2012), p. 2.

¹³ Reydams, Luc, “Key Issues in International Criminal Law: The Rise and Fall of Universal Jurisdiction,” in William A. Schabas and Nadia Bernaz, eds., Routledge Handbook of International Criminal Law (Abingdon, U.K.: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Roht-Arriaza, Naomi, The Pinochet Effect: Transnational Justice in the Age of Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), p. 170CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Ibid, p. 387; and Richard Bernstein, “Belgium Rethinks Its Prosecutorial Zeal,” New York Times, April 1, 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/04/01/world/belgium-rethinks-its-prosecutorial-zeal.html.

¹⁶ Roht-Arriaza, Naomi, “Universal Jurisdiction: Steps Forward, Steps Back,” Leiden Journal of International Law 17, no. 2 (June 2004), pp. 375–89, at pp. 387–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ See, for example, Cassese, Antonio, “Is the Bell Tolling for Universality? A Plea for a Sensible Notion of Universal Jurisdiction,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 1, no. 3 (December 2003), pp. 589–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Langer and Eason, “The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction.”

¹⁹ Ibid., p. 782; and Langer, Máximo, “The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction: The Political Branches and the Transnational Prosecution of International Crimes,” American Journal of International Law 105, no. 1 (January 2011), pp. 1–49, at p. 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰ Langer and Eason, “The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction.”

²¹ Máximo Langer, “Universal Jurisdiction Is Not Disappearing: The Shift from ‘Global Enforcer’ to ‘No Safe Haven’ Universal Jurisdiction,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 13, no. 2 (May 2015), pp. 245–56; and Yuna Han, “Rebirth of Universal Jurisdiction?,” Ethics & International Affairs blog, May 2017, www.ethicsandinternationalaffairs.org/2017/rebirth-universal-jurisdiction/.

²² Amnesty International, “Syria,” in Amnesty International Report 2020/2021: The State of the World's Human Rights, POL 10/3202/2021 (London: Amnesty International, 2021), pp. 345–49, at p. 345.

²³ “UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria: ISIS Is Committing Genocide against the Yazidis,” United Nations Human Rights Council, June 16, 2016, www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=20113&LangID=E.

²⁴ “Total Registered Syrian Refugees,” Operational Data Portal: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, last updated November 28, 2021, data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria.

²⁵ For a general overview of the politics of peace and justice in the Syrian conflict, see Schaack, Beth Van, Imagining Justice for Syria: Water Always Finds Its Way (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶ Ibid., pp. 55–56.

²⁷ Elliott, Ingrid, ‘“A Meaningful Step towards Accountability? A View from the Field on the United Nations International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism for Syria,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 15, no. 2 (May 2017), pp. 239–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ There are currently two forms of UJ— “pure” UJ does not require the presence of victim or suspect in the territory; “conditional” UJ generally requires either one or both parties to be present. See Alexandre Skander Galand, Accountability for International Crimes Committed in Syria (policy brief, Individualization of War project, Brussels: European Research Council, 2019), iow.eui.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2019/04/IOW-Policy-Brief-Galand_160419.pdf.

²⁹ The countries holding these trials include Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. The number of cases includes cases involving nationals of the prosecuting countries if the nationals were linked to a broader investigation of a UJ case. Compiled from TRIAL International, Universal Jurisdiction Annual Review 2021: A Year like No Other? The Impact of Coronavirus on Universal Jurisdiction (Geneva: TRIAL International, n.d.), trialinternational.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/TRIAL_International_UJAR-2021.pdf.

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Van Schaak, Imagining Justice for Syria, p. 288.

³² “Central Unit for the Fight against War Crimes and further Offences Pursuant to the Code of Crimes against International Law (ZBKV),” Bundeskriminalamt, www.bka.de/EN/OurTasks/Remit/CentralAgency/ZBKV/zbkv_node.html.

³³ Ibid.

³⁴ Kaleck, Wolfgang and Kroker, Patrick, “Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond: Breathing New Life into Universal Jurisdiction in Europe?,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 16, no. 1 (March 2018), pp. 165–91, at p. 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Ibid., p. 171.

³⁶ The Federal Republic of Germany (as Berlin [West] prior to reunification with the German Democratic Republic) adopted the Convention against Torture in 1984 and ratified it in 1990. The Genocide Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted in 1948 and ratified in 1954.

³⁷ Langer, “The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 11.

³⁸ The German legal system, while highly receptive to international law, is not, strictly speaking, a monist state, in which international law is seen as superior to municipal law, is considered within the same legal corpus, and requires customary international law to be incorporated into this domestic legal system through Article 25 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz). Consequently, the crimes listed in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court can be considered part of customary international law, but they require domestic legislation to be applicable in Germany. Although the Rome Statute does enumerate individual crimes, because it does not meet German constitutional principles of legality, and because the primary aim of the statute was understood as providing the ICC jurisdiction over the crimes, not its member states, a separate piece of legislation was necessary to introduce the international crimes in the Rome Statute in the German legal order. For further explanation of CCAIL, see Helmut Satzger, “German Criminal Law and the Rome Statute: A Critical Analysis of the New German Code of Crimes against International Law,” International Criminal Law Review 2, no. 3 (2002), pp. 261–82; and on Germany's dualist legal system, see George Slyz, “International Law in National Courts,” NYU Journal of International Law & Politics 28, nos. 1/2 (Fall/Winter 1995), pp. 65–114.

³⁹ Helmut Gropengießer, “The Criminal Law of Genocide: The German Perspective,” International Criminal Law Review 5 (2005), pp. 329–42, at 329–31.

⁴⁰ Kaleck and Kroker, “Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond,” p. 178.

⁴¹ Ibid., p. 179.

⁴² Langer and Eason, “The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction.” For example, the so-called Caesar Report, named after a Syrian military defector with the code name “Caesar,” was based on tens and thousands of images smuggled out of Syria. United Nations Security Council, A Report into the Credibility of Certain Evidence with Regard to Torture and Execution of Persons Incarcerated by the Current Syrian Regime (the “Caesar Report”), S/2014/244, April 4, 2014, undocs.org/en/S/2014/244.

⁴³ Jeßberger, Florian and Geneuss, Julia, “‘Litigating Universal Jurisdiction’—Introduction,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 13, no. 2 (May 2015), pp. 205–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁴ Rankin, Melinda, “Investigating Crimes against Humanity in Syria and Iraq: The Commission for International Justice and Accountability,” Global Responsibility to Protect 9, no. 4 (2017), pp, 395–421, at p. 401CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Since 2012, CIJA has reportedly amassed eight hundred thousand pages of Syrian government documents as well as 469,000 videos or other digital files. Hannah el-Hitami, “Syrian Trial in Germany: The Orders That Came from the Very Top,” JusticeInfo.net, November 26, 2020, www.justiceinfo.net/en/tribunals/national-tribunals/46100-syrian-trial-germany-orders-came-from-very-top.html.

⁴⁵ El-Hitami, “Syrian Trial in Germany”; and Tom Miles, “German Arrest Is First Big Catch for Syria Investigators,” Reuters, February 13, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-syria-investigators-idUSKCN1Q22G1.

⁴⁶ European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights, Dossier—Human Rights Violations in Syria: Torture under Assad (Berlin: ECCHR, November 2020), www.ecchr.eu/fileadmin/Sondernewsletter_Dossiers/Dossier_Syria_2020November.pdf.

⁴⁷ The Caesar Files became the impetus for the Caesar Files Group, an NGO formed in 2014 that includes activists inside and outside Syria who document human rights violations and identify victims. See “Background,” Caesar Files Group, caesar-fsg.org/about-the-organization/.

⁴⁸ Philip Oltermann, “How Angela Merkel's Great Migrant Gamble Paid Off,” Guardian, August 30, 2020, www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/30/angela-merkel-great-migrant-gamble-paid-off.

⁴⁹ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2019 (Geneva: UNHCR, June 18, 2020), www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37/.

⁵⁰ Data compiled from Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (Federal Office for Migration and Refugees), Aktuelle zahlen (Current Figures) (Berlin, Germany: Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, December 2019), p. 3, www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Statistik/AsylinZahlen/aktuelle-zahlen-dezember-2019.pdf;jsessionid=E61EB8035C578C7D5856BC0DC38840F6.internet282?__blob=publicationFile&v=5.

⁵¹ Jill Baehring, “Side Event: ‘National Jurisdictions in the Front Line of Fighting Impunity,’” PILPG, November 18, 2016, www.publicinternationallawandpolicygroup.org/lawyering-justice-blog/2016/11/18/side-event-national-jurisdictions-in-the-front-line-of-fighting-impunity-hosted-by-the-eu-network-for-investigation-and-prosecution-of-genocide-crimes-against-humanity-and-war-crimes.

⁵² Kaleck and Kroker, “Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond,” p. 180.

⁵³ Espen Stokke and Eric Wiebelhaus-Brahm, “Syrian Diaspora Mobilization: Vertical Coordination, Patronage Relations, and the Challenges of Fragmentation in the Pursuit of Transitional Justice,” in “Diaspora Mobilizations for Transitional Justice,” special issue, Ethnic and Racial Studies 42, no. 11 (2019), pp. 1931–32.

⁵⁴ European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights, Dossier, p. 1.

⁵⁵ Hannah El-Hitami, “Syria's Long Road to Justice and the Man Hoping to Walk it There,” Al Jazeera, April 30, 2020, www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/4/30/syrias-long-road-to-justice-and-the-man-hoping-to-walk-it-there.

⁵⁶ Krasner, Stephen D., Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Crawford, James and Brownlie, Ian, Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law 9th edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), p. 457CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁸ Song, Jiewuh, “Pirates and Torturers: Universal Jurisdiction as Enforcement Gap-Filling,” Journal of Political Philosophy 23, no. 4 (December 2015), pp. 473–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁹ Princeton Project on Universal Jurisdiction, Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, p. 23.

⁶⁰ Song, “Pirates and Torturers,” pp. 473–75.

⁶¹ Hovell, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” pp. 443–44.

⁶² Mégret, “The ‘Elephant in the Room’ in Debates about Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 93.

⁶³ Langer, “Universal Jurisdiction is Not Disappearing,” p. 247.

⁶⁴ Janina Dill, “Do Attackers Have a Legal Duty of Care? Limits to the ‘Individualization of War,’” International Theory 11, no.1 (March 2019), pp. 1–25, at p. 4.

⁶⁵ Parlett, Kate, The Individual in the International Legal System: State-Centrism, History and Change in International Law (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁶ Teitel, Ruti G., Humanity's Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁷ Many thanks to one of the anonymous reviewers for this point.

⁶⁸ Article 17(1)(a), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, A/CONF.183/9, July 17, 1998; See also, Preamble.

⁶⁹ Kenneth W. Abbott, “International Relations Theory, International Law, and the Regime Governing Atrocities in Internal Conflicts,” American Journal of International Law 93, no. 2 (April 1999), pp. 361–79.

⁷⁰ Song's enforcement gap model of universal jurisdiction is in line with this observation. See Song, “Pirates and Torturers,” pp. 481–86.

⁷¹ Michelle Burgis-Kasthala, “Entrepreneurial Justice: Syria, the Commission for International Justice and Accountability and the Renewal of International Criminal Justice,” European Journal of International Law 30, no. 4 (November 2019), pp. 1165–85; and Melinda Rankin, “The Future of International Criminal Evidence in New Wars? The Evolution of the Commission for International Justice and Accountability (CIJA),” Journal of Genocide Research 20, no. 3 (2018), pp. 392–411.

⁷² Roht-Arriaza, Pinochet Effect, p. 173.

⁷³ Waldron, Jeremy, Law and Disagreement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁴ Müller, Luise K., “Universal Jurisdiction, Pirates and Vigilantes,” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 22, no. 4 (2019), pp. 390–411, at pp. 394–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁵ David Luban, “A Theory of Crimes against Humanity,” Yale Journal of International Law 29, no. 1 (Winter 2004), pp. 85–168, at pp. 140–41.

⁷⁶ Müller, “Universal Jurisdiction,” pp. 396–97.

⁷⁷ Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, 2002 I.C.J. (Feb. 14) (separate opinion of Gilbert Guillaume), p. 43, para.15.

⁷⁸ Luban, “A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity,” pp. 141–42.

⁷⁹ Müller, “Universal Jurisdiction,” pp. 400–401.

⁸⁰ See, for example, United Nations General Assembly, Articles 8, 10, 11, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, December 10, 1948. See also Amal Clooney and Philippa Webb, The Right to a Fair Trial in International Law (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2021).

⁸¹ Diane F. Orentlicher, “Whose Justice? Reconciling Universal Jurisdiction with Democratic Principles,” Georgetown Law Journal 92, no. 6 (August 2004), pp. 1057–1132; and Sarah M. H. Nouwen and Wouter G. Werner, “Monopolizing Global Justice: International Criminal Law as Challenge to Human Diversity,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 13, no. 1 (March 2015), pp. 157–76.

⁸² Hovell, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 446; the former president of ICJ, Gilbert Guillaume, argued that judicial chaos created by UJ would only benefit the powerful. See Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, 2002 I.C.J. (Feb. 14) (separate opinion of Gilbert Guillaume), p. 43.

⁸³ Henry A. Kissinger, “The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction,” Foreign Affairs 80, no. 4 (July/August 2001), pp. 86–96, at p. 93.

⁸⁴ Luban, “A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity,” p. 144; and Immi Tallgren, “The Sense and Sensibility of International Criminal Law,” European Journal of International Law 13, no. 3 (April 2002), pp. 561–95, at pp. 565–66.

⁸⁵ For the former position, see Shklar, Judith, Legalism: Law, Moral, and Political Trials (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964)Google Scholar; Osiel, Mark J., Making Sense of Mass Atrocity (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Simpson, Gerry, Law, War and Crime: War Crimes, Trials and the Reinvention of International Law (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity, 2007), p. 13Google Scholar. For the latter position, see Arendt, Hannah, Eichmann in Jerusalem (London: Penguin Books, 2006)Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Mamdani, Mahmood, Saviors and Survivors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (New York: Pantheon Books, 2009), p. 284Google Scholar; and Mennecke, Martin, The African Union and Universal Jurisdiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), pp. 10–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁷ Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, 2002 I.C.J. (Feb. 14) (separate opinion of Judge Sayeman Bula-Bula), pp. 100–37.

⁸⁸ William A. Schabas, “The Banality of International Justice,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 11, no. 3 (July 2013), pp. 545–51, at p. 551.

⁸⁹ Roht-Arriaza, Pinochet Effect, pp. 212, 8–16, 38–40.

⁹⁰ Steven R. Ratner, “Belgium's War Crimes Statute: A Postmortem,” American Journal of International Law 97, no. 4 (October 2003), pp. 888–97, at pp. 889–90.

⁹¹ Hovell, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 449.

⁹² Mégret, “The ‘Elephant in the Room’ in Debates about Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 99.

⁹³ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 486.

⁹⁴ Ibid.

⁹⁵ Reydams, Universal Jurisdiction, p. 158.

⁹⁶ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 496; and Attorney General of the Government of Israel v. Adolf Eichmann, Judgment, District Court of Jerusalem, Criminal Case No.40/61 (December 11, 1961), para. 12, www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/Israel/Eichmann_Judgement_11-12-1961.pdf.

⁹⁷ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 497.

⁹⁸ Langer, “Universal Jurisdiction Is Not Disappearing.”

⁹⁹ Attorney General of the Government of Israel v. Adolf Eichmann, para. 11.

¹⁰⁰ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 503.

¹⁰¹ Attorney General of the Government of Israel v. Adolf Eichmann, para. 29 (emphasis added).

¹⁰² Gary J. Bass, “The Adolf Eichmann Case: Universal and National Jurisdiction,” in Stephen Macedo, ed., Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes under International Law (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), p. 78.

¹⁰³ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 515.

¹⁰⁴ Adeno Addis, “Imagining the International Community: The Constitutive Dimension of Universal Jurisdiction,” Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 1 (February 2009), pp. 129–62.

¹⁰⁵ Tom Segev, The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust (New York: Picador, 2000).

¹⁰⁶ Tom Segev, quoted in Gavin Esler, “How Nazi Adolf Eichmann's Holocaust Trial Unified Israel,” BBC News, April 6, 2011, www.bbc.com/news/world-12912527.

¹⁰⁷ “Central Unit for the Fight against War Crimes and Further Offences.”

¹⁰⁸ See Principle 8, “Resolution of Competing National Jurisdictions,” in Princeton Project on Universal Jurisdiction, Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, p. 32.

¹⁰⁹ Eugene Kontorovich, “The Parochial Uses of Universal Jurisdiction,” Notre Dame Law Review 94, no. 3 (2019), pp. 1417–52.

¹¹⁰ Janina Dill, Legitimate Targets? Social Construction, International Law and US Bombing (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 63.

¹¹¹ Carsten Stahn, Justice as Message: Expressivist Foundations of International Criminal Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), pp. 391–416.

¹¹² Kontorovich, “The Parochial Uses of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 1448.

¹¹³ Langer, “Universal Jurisdiction Is Not Disappearing,” pp. 249–50.

¹¹⁴ Mann, “The Dual Foundation of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 519.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., p. 518.

¹¹⁶ See, for example, United Nations General Assembly, “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law,” A/Res 60/147, March 21, 2006; and Hovell, “The Authority of Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 453. See also Francesco Francioni, Access to Justice as a Human Right (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

¹¹⁷ Mégret, “The ‘Elephant in the Room’ in Debates about Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 100.

¹¹⁸ Ibid., p. 106.

¹¹⁹ Ibid., p. 102.

¹²⁰ Mark Mackinnon, “Anwar and Anwar: How a Chance Encounter Helped Lead to a Watershed Trial Linked to Syrian Conflict,” Globe and Mail, April 24, 2020, www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-anwar-and-anwar-how-a-chance-encounter-helped-lead-to-a-watershed/.

¹²¹ United Nations General Assembly, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, July 28, 1951.

¹²² Haddad, Emma, The Refugee in International Society: Between Sovereigns (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 59–60Google Scholar.

¹²³ Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951; London: Penguin Classics, 2017), pp. 351, 381–82.

¹²⁴ Serena Parekh, “Beyond the Ethics of Admission: Stateless People, Refugee Camps and Moral Obligations,” Philosophy of Social Criticism 40, no. 7 (September 2014), pp. 645–63, at p. 650.

¹²⁵ Mégret, “The ‘Elephant in the Room’ in Debates about Universal Jurisdiction,” p. 107.

¹²⁶ Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 375.

¹²⁷ Parekh, “Beyond the Ethics of Admission,” p. 651. See also Parekh, Serena, No Refuge: Ethics and the Global Refugee Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁸ Parekh, “Beyond the Ethics of Admission,” p. 652.

¹²⁹ Agamben, Giorgio, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans. Heller-Roazen, Daniel (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; and Agier, Michel, Managing the Undesirables: Refugee Camps and Humanitarian Government, trans. Fernbach, David (Malden, Mass.: Polity, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Agier, Managing the Undesirables.

¹³¹ For example, the German Integration Act (Integrationsgesetz) focuses on language acquisition, skills acquisition, and removing barriers to labor market entry. Summary of the Act in English available at www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/germany-act-to-integrate-refugees-enters-into-force/. Germany explicitly defines “integration potential” to mean economic self-reliance, measured by indicators such as “educational and vocational training” and “professional experience.” Welfens, Natalie and Bonjour, Saskia, “Families First? The Mobilization of Family Norms in Refugee Resettlement,” International Political Sociology 15, no. 2 (June 2021), p. 219CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Herbert Brücker, Philipp Jaschke, and Yuliya Kosyakova, Integrating Refugees and Asylum Seekers into the German Economy and Society (Washington, D.C.: Transatlantic Council on Migration, Migration Policy Institute, December 2019), www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/TCM_2019_Germany-FINAL.pdf.

¹³² Lily Hindy, “Germany's Syrian Refugee Integration Experiment,” Century Foundation, September 6, 2018, tcf.org/content/report/germanys-syrian-refugee-integration-experiment/?session=1#easy-footnote-bottom-73.

¹³³ Ibid. See also Funk, Nanette, “A Spectre in Germany: Refugees, a ‘Welcome Culture’ and an ‘Integration Politics,’” Journal of Global Ethics 12, no. 3 (2016), pp. 289–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³⁴ Parekh, “Beyond the Ethics of Admission,” p. 656.

¹³⁵ Langer and Eason, “The Quiet Expansion of Universal Jurisdiction.”

¹³⁶ Lena Bjurström, “Syrian Trials in Europe: ‘They Give a Distorted Perception of the Crimes Perpetrated,’” JusticeInfo.net, www.justiceinfo.net/en/justiceinfo-comment-and-debate/in-depth-interviews/45525-syrian-trials-europe-distorted-perception-crimes-perpetrated.html.

¹³⁷ See, for example, Langer, “The Diplomacy of Universal Jurisdiction.”

¹³⁸ See, for example, Cassese, “Is the Bell Tolling for Universality?”

¹³⁹ Kaleck and Kroker, “Syrian Torture Investigations in Germany and Beyond”; and Owens, Kaitlin, “Improving the Odds: Strengthening the Prospects for Accountability in the Syrian Conflict by Regulating the Marketplace for Information on Atrocity Crimes,” University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review 26, no. 2 (Spring 2019), pp. 369–436Google Scholar.