No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
The Role of Risk Analysis in EU Food Governance: Balancing Scientific Food Safety Factors and External Factors that Inform Risk Management for Healthier Food Systems
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 May 2024
Abstract
Scientific consensus links dietary choices to health outcomes, highlighting the urgency to prioritise healthy food production in food systems. At the EU level, however, defining healthy food and integrating it into food governance remains a challenge, particularly regarding the inclusion of health-related characteristics in food safety assessments. While the EU primarily relies on the risk analysis principle to address food safety concerns, the process still exhibits weaknesses that hinder its direct impact on fostering a healthier food production landscape. This review demonstrates how the risk analysis process, particularly scientific opinions in risk assessment and external factors (economic and political) in risk management, impact food governance and the healthiness of food systems. We find that while external factors play a crucial role in risk management decisions by incorporating non-food safety considerations, they often stem from an imbalance of power favouring major industry and political stakeholders. This imbalance disproportionately influences decision-making, often overshadowing nutritional and health aspects. To address these challenges, we recommend directing research towards filling knowledge gaps and exploring minority scientific findings, and separating external factors from risk management’s decision-making process, to ensure that food governance prioritises public health and healthy food production.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press
References
1 IPES-Food, “Unravelling the Food-Health Nexus: Addressing Practices, Political Economy, and Power Relations to Build Healthier Food Systems” (2017) at pp 13 and 40; GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators, “Health Effects of Dietary Risks in 195 Countries, 1990–2017: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017” (2019) vol 393 Lancet pp 1958.
2 GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators (n 1) at pp 1967–8; IPES-Food (n 1) at p 1; Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Farm to Fork Strategy for a fair, healthy and environmentally-friendly food system COM/2020/381 final (European Commission, 2020).
3 Sonia S Anand and others, “Food Consumption and Its Impact on Cardiovascular Disease: Importance of Solutions Focused on the Globalized Food System” (2015) 66 Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1590; Garrett Brown, Gavin Yamey and Sarah Wamala, The Handbook of Global Health Policy (Wiley–Blackwell 2014); GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators (n 1) at pp 1967–8; David Wallinga, “Today’s Food System: How Healthy Is It?” (2009) 4 Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition 251.
4 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 9.
5 Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety, OJ 2002 L31/1 (General Food Law–GFL).
6 Art 6 GFL.
7 ibid.
8 Anna Szajkowska, “Food Safety Governance from a European Perspective: Risk Assessment and Non-Scientific Factors” in Otto Hospes and Irene Hadiprayitno (eds), EU multi-level regulation, in Governing food security: Law, politics and the right to food (Wageningen Academic Publishers 2010) at p 226.
9 ibid.
10 ibid.
11 Adrian Ely and Andrew Sterling, “The Process of Assessment” in Marion Dreyer and Ortwin Renn (eds), Food Safety Governance: Integrating Science, Precaution and Public Involvement (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009).
12 ibid at p 68.
13 ibid.
14 Marion Dreyer and Ortwin Renn, “A Structured Approach to Participation” in Marion Dreyer and Ortwin Renn (eds), Food Safety Governance: Integrating Science, Precaution and Public Involvement (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009).
15 ibid at p 120.
16 Alie de Boer, “Scientific Assessments in European Food Law: Making It Future-Proof” (2019) 108 Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 104437.
17 ibid.
18 Szajkowska (n 8); Ely and Sterling (n 11); Dreyer and Renn (n 14).
19 Szajkowska (n 8); de Boer (n 16).
20 Regulation (EU) 2019/1381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on the transparency and sustainability of the EU risk assessment in the food chain and amending Regulations (EC) No 178/2002, (EC) No 1829/2003, (EC) No 1831/2003, (EC) No 2065/2003, (EC) No 1935/2004, (EC) No 1331/2008, (EC) No 1107/2009, (EU) 2015/2283 and Directive 2001/18/EC, OJ L 231/1 – Transparency Regulation.
21 Yann Devos and others, “Conducting Fit-for-Purpose Food Safety Risk Assessments” [2019] EFSA Journal.
22 Otto Hospes and Anke Brons, “Food System Governance: A Systematic Literature Review” in Amanda Kennedy and Jonathan Liljeblad (eds), Food Systems Governance (2016); Aogán Delaney and others, “Governance of Food Systems across Scales in Times of Social-Ecological Change: A Review of Indicators” (2018) 10 Food Security; Caroline van Bers and others, “Advancing the Research Agenda on Food Systems Governance and Transformation” [2019] Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability; HLPE, “Nutrition and Food Systems: A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition” (2017) Report #12.
23 Jan Kooiman and others, “Interactive Governance and Governability: An Introduction” (2008) 7 The Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies 2, at p 2.
24 Caroline van Bers and others, “Transformation in Governance towards Resilient Food Systems” (2016) Working Paper at p 10.
25 Diana Liverman and Kamal Kapadia, “Food Systems and the Global Environment: An Overview” in John Ingram, Polly Ericksen and Diana Liverman (eds), Food Security and Global Environmental Change (Earthscan 2010) at p 20.
26 Dreyer and Renn (n 14) at p 112.
27 Kelly Parsons and Corinna Hawkes, “Connecting Food Systems for Co-Benefits: How Can Food Systems Combine Diet-Related Health with Environmental and Economic Policy Goals?” (2018) Policy Brief 31 at p 11; Rafaele Vignola, Peter Oosterveer and Chris Béné, “Conceptualising Food System Governance and Its Present Challenges” [2021] Wageningen University at pp 6-7.
28 IPES-Food (n 1).
29 Christophe Béné and others, “When Food Systems Meet Sustainability – Current Narratives and Implications for Actions”(2019) 113 World Development 116.
30 Vignola, Oosterveer and Béné (n 27) at p 7.
31 ibid at pp 5 and 19; Melissa Leach and others, “Food Politics and Development” (2020) 134 World Development 105024; Ruerd Ruben, Jan Verhagen and Christine Plaisier, “The Challenge of Food Systems Research: What Difference Does It Make?” (2019) 11 Sustainability 171; Christophe Béné and others, “Understanding Food Systems Drivers: A Critical Review of the Literature” (2019) 23 Global Food Security.
32 European Commission, “COM(2001) 428 - European Governance; A White Paper” at p 8.
33 ibid at p 9.
34 Béné and others (n 29); Rutger Schilpzand and others, “Governance Beyond the State: Non-State Actors and Food Systems” in John Ingram, Polly Ericksen and Diana Liverman (eds), Food Security and Global Environmental Change (Earthscan 2010).
35 Erik Millstone, “Science, Risk and Governance: Radical Rhetorics and the Realities of Reform in Food Safety Governance” (2009) 38 Research Policy 624, at pp 624-5.
36 ibid at p 626.
37 ibid at pp 625–6; National Research Council of the National Academies, Science and Decisions: Advancing Risk Assessment (National Academies Press (US) 2009) at p 15.
38 Sheila S Jasanoff, “Contested Boundaries in Policy-Relevant Science” (1987) 17 Social Studies of Science 195; Erik Millstone, Erik Brunner and Sue Mayer, “Beyond ‘substantial Equivalence’” (1999) 401 Nature 525.
39 Millstone (n 35) at p 626.
40 Patrick Van Zwanenberg and Erik Millstone, “BSE: Risk, Science and Governance” (2005) 58 Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 303.
41 Millstone (n 35) at p 626.
42 ibid at p 634.
43 UN Environment, “Strengthening the Science-Policy Interface: A Gap Analysis.”
44 Brajesh K Singh and others, “Enhancing Science–Policy Interfaces for Food Systems Transformation” (2021) 2 Nature Food 838, at p 2; IPFSS Expert Group, European Commission, “Recommendations to the United Nations’ Food Systems Summit Scientific Group from the European Commission’s High-Level Expert Group to Assess Needs and Options to Strengthen the International Science Policy Interface for Food Systems Governance” (2021).
45 OECD, “Scientific Advice for Policy Making: The Role and Responsibility of Expert Bodies and Individual Scientists,” vol 21 (2015) 21 at p 11.
46 ibid.
47 ibid.
48 Dreyer and Renn (n 14) at pp 11–2.
49 Jean-Jacques Laffont and Jean Tirole, A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation (The MIT Press 1993); Andrea Saltelli and others, “Science, the Endless Frontier of Regulatory Capture” (2022) 135 Futures 102860.
50 Saltelli and others (n 49) at p 9; George J Stigler, “The Theory of Economic Regulation” (1971) 2 The Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 3.
51 Saltelli and others (n 49) at p 9.
52 Jennifer Lacy-Nichols and Owain Williams, “‘Part of the Solution’: Food Corporation Strategies for Regulatory Capture and Legitimacy” (2021) 10 International Journal of Health Policy and Management 845.
53 Raphael Lencucha, “Situating Food Industry Influence: Governance Norms and Economic Order Comment on ‘Part of the Solution’: Food Corporation Strategies for Regulatory Capture and Legitimacy’” [2022] International Journal of Health Policy and Management <https://www.ijhpm.com/article_4270.html> accessed 18 April 2023.
54 Luke N Allen, “Trust, but Verify Comment on ‘Part of the Solution’: Food Corporation Strategies for Regulatory Capture and Legitimacy’” [2022] International Journal of Health Policy and Management.
55 Lacy-Nichols and Williams (n 52); Ernesto Dal Bó, “Regulatory Capture: A Review” (2006) 22 Oxford Review of Economic Policy 203; Saltelli and others (n 49).
56 Joachim von Braun and Matthias Kalkuhl, “International Science and Policy Interaction for Improved Food and Nutrition Security: Toward an International Panel on Food and Nutrition (IPFN)” (2015) ZEF Working Paper Series, No. 142, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn at p 10.
57 European Commission, “The General Food Law: Fitness Check” (2018) <https://food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2018-01/gfl_fitc_infographic_2018_en.pdf> accessed 1 September 2022.
58 Preambles (9) and (32) GFL.
59 Art 6 GFL.
60 Art 3(11) GFL.
61 Preamble (33) and Art 22 GFL.
62 Art 3(12) GFL.
63 Art 3(13) GFL.
64 European Commission, “The General Food Law: Fitness Check” (n 57) accessed 1 September 2022.
65 Art 6(1) GFL.
66 Art 6(2) GFL.
67 Art 6(3) GFL.
68 European Commission, “REFIT – Making EU Law Simpler, Less Costly and Future Proof” <https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-making-process/evaluating-and-improving-existing-laws/refit-making-eu-law-simpler-less-costly-and-future-proof_en> accessed 13 February 2023.
69 European Commission, “Commission Staff Working Document: The Refit Evaluation of the General Food Law (Regulation (EC) No 178/2002) (SWD(2018) 38 Final)” at p 78–9.
70 ibid at p 78.
71 Aleš Bartl, “REFIT of Food Legislation: An Opportunity to Discuss Implementation and Enforcement Issues” (2015) 10 EFFL 84; Alie de Boer and Aalt Bast, “Stakeholders’ Perception of the Nutrition and Health Claim Regulation” (2015) 66 International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 321; Bas J Blaauboer and others, “Considering New Methodologies in Strategies for Safety Assessment of Foods and Food Ingredients” (2016) 91 Food and Chemical Toxicology 19.
72 de Boer (n 16) at pp 2-3; Blaauboer and others (n 71).
73 Karin GM Lenssen, Aalt Bast and Alie de Boer, “Clarifying the Health Claim Assessment Procedure of EFSA Will Benefit Functional Food Innovation” (2018) 47 Journal of Functional Foods 386; Hans Verhagen and Henk van Loveren, “Status of Nutrition and Health Claims in Europe by Mid 2015” (2016) 56 Trends in Food Science & Technology 39.
74 Diane Benford and others, “Guidance on Uncertainty Analysis in Scientific Assessments” (2018) 16 EFSA Journal e05123; Julien Etienne and others, “Final Report: Clear Communications and Uncertainty” (2018) 15 EFSA Supporting Publications 1412E.
75 European Commission, Draft Commission Implementing regulation for renewing the approval of the active substance glyphosate in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 540/2011.
76 EFSA, “Conclusion on the Peer Review of the Pesticide Risk Assessment of the Active Substance Glyphosate” (2015) 13 EFSA Journal 4302; IARC, “IARC Monographs Volume 112: Evaluation of Five Organophosphate Insecticides and Herbicides” (2015).
77 European Commission, “European Citizens’ Initiative: Ban Glyphosate and Protect People and the Environment from Toxic Pesticides” (2017).
78 Regulation (EU) 2019/1381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on the transparency and sustainability of the EU risk assessment in the food chain and amending Regulations (EC) No 178/2002, (EC) No 1829/2003, (EC) No 1831/2003, (EC) No 2065/2003, (EC) No 1935/2004, (EC) No 1331/2008, (EC) No 1107/2009, (EU) 2015/2283 and Directive 2001/18/EC, OJ L 231/1 - Transparency Regulation.
79 Preambles (4), (12) and (18), and Art 8a GFL.
80 Preambles (8), (12), and (24) GFL.
81 EFSA, “Assessment Tools and Resources” <https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/tools-and-resources#> accessed 12 February 2023.
82 EFSA, “Methodology” <https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/methodology> accessed 12 February 2023; Commission Regulation (EU) 2018/782 of 29 May 2018 establishing the methodological principles for the risk assessment and risk management recommendations referred to in Regulation (EC) No 470/2009, OJ L 132/5.
83 Vittorio Silano, “Science, Risk Assessment and Decision- Making to Ensure Food and Feed Safety in the European Union” (2009) 4 EFFL 400, at p 403; Henri Goverde, “Food Politics: Science and Democracy in the Dutch and EU Food Polity” in Otto Hospes and Irene Hadiprayitno (eds), Governing Food Security: Law, Politics and the Right to Food (Wageningen Academic Publishers 2010) at p 172.
84 de Boer (n 16) at p 5.
85 Mark Petticrew and Helen Roberts, Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide (Blackwell Publishing 2006) at p 90.
86 ibid at pp 3–4.
87 de Boer (n 16) at p 5.
88 AM O’Connor and others, “Implementation of Systematic Reviews in EFSA Scientific Outputs Workflow” (2012) 9 EFSA Supporting Publications 367E, at p 9.
89 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), “Application of Systematic Review Methodology to Food and Feed Safety Assessments to Support Decision Making - EFSA Guidance for Those Carrying out Systematic Reviews” (2010) 8 1637, at p 55.
90 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (n 89).
91 European Risk Forum, ‘Risk Management and the EU’s Administrative State: Implementing Law through Science, Regulation and Guidance’ (2019) at p 7.
92 ibid at p 6.
93 European Risk Forum (n 91).
94 de Boer (n 16); MH Zwietering, “Risk Assessment and Risk Management for Safe Foods: Assessment Needs Inclusion of Variability and Uncertainty, Management Needs Discrete Decisions” (2015) 213 International Journal of Food Microbiology 118.
95 European Risk Forum (n 91).
96 Sevasti Chatzopoulou, Nélida Leiva Eriksson and Dennis Eriksson, “Improving Risk Assessment in the European Food Safety Authority: Lessons from the European Medicines Agency” (2020) 11 Frontiers in Plant Science.
97 European Risk Forum (n 91) at p 6 and 8.
98 Art 6(3) GFL.
99 Art 6(2)(3) GFL.
100 Alberto Alemanno and Stephanie Mahieu, “The European Food Safety Authority Before European Courts” (2008) 5 European Food and Feed Law Review 320, at p 325.
101 Art 6(3) GFL.
102 Arts 5(1) and (2) GFL.
103 Preamble (29) Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods, OJ L 404/9 (Nutrition and Health Claims Regulation–NHCR) (European Union); Preamble (14) Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 establishing a common authorisation procedure for food additives, food enzymes and food flavourings, OJ 2008 L354/1; Art 12(1) Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on novel foods, amending Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1852/2001, OJ L 327/1 - NFR; Art 7(1) Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 on genetically modified food and feed, OJ 2003 L 268/1 (GMOR Regulation).
104 Art 17(1) NHC; Art 3(4), Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008.
105 Preamble (14), Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008; Preamble (7) Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives OJ L 354/67 (Food Additives Regulation - FAR); Preamble (6) Regulation (EC) No 1332/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food enzymes and amending Council Directive 83/417/EEC, Council Regulation (EC) No 1493/1999, Directive 2000/13/EC, Council Directive 2001/112/EC and Regulation (EC) No 258/97, OJ 2008 L 354/7 (Food Enzymes Regulation - FER).
106 Art 17(1) NHC; Arts 7(1) and 19(1) GMO Regulation.
107 Art 6(2)(3) GFL.
108 ibid. (n 103-107).
109 Szajkowska (n 8) at p 202.
110 Per Pinstrup-Andersen, “Nutrition-Sensitive Food Systems: From Rhetoric to Action” (2013) 382 The Lancet 375, at p 375; Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Derrill Watson, Food Policy for Developing Countries: The Role of Government in Global, National, and Local Food Systems (Cornell University Press 2011).
111 Stuart Gillespie and others, “The Politics of Reducing Malnutrition: Building Commitment and Accelerating Progress” (2013) 382 Lancet 552; Bernd van der Meulen, “Science Based Food Law” (2009) 4 EFFL 58, at p 59.
112 Art 34 TFEU and Art 5 GFL.
113 Rolf Lidskog, “Scientised Citizens and Democratised Science. Re-Assessing the Expert-Lay Divide” (2008) 11 Journal of Risk Research 69.
114 Gillespie and others (n 111); Pinstrup-Andersen (n 110); Pinstrup-Andersen and Watson (n 110).
115 Goverde (n 83) at p 174.
116 ibid.
117 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 58.
118 Dana Dalrymple, ‘International Agricultural Research as a Global Public Good: Concepts, the CGIAR Experience and Policy Issues’ (2008) 20 Journal of International Development 347; Alessandro Muscio, Davide Quaglione and Giovanna Vallanti, ‘Does Government Funding Complement or Substitute Private Research Funding to Universities?’ (2013) 42 Research Policy 63.
119 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 58.
120 J Piesse and C Thirtle, ‘Agricultural R&D, Technology and Productivity’ (2010) 365 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 3035.
121 Gary Sacks and others, ‘The Characteristics and Extent of Food Industry Involvement in Peer-Reviewed Research Articles from 10 Leading Nutrition-Related Journals in 2018’ (2020) 15 PLOS ONE e0243144; Lenard I Lesser and others, ‘Relationship between Funding Source and Conclusion among Nutrition-Related Scientific Articles’ (2007) 4 PLOS Medicine e5.
122 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 58.
123 Art 61(a) GFL, as amended by Art 1, Transparency Regulation.
124 Pinstrup-Andersen (n 110) at p 375.
125 Jill McCluskey and Johan Swinnen, ‘The Media and Food-Risk Perceptions’ (2011) 12 EMBO Reports 624.
126 ibid.
127 Pinstrup-Andersen (n 110) at p 375; Gillespie and others (n 111).
128 Pinstrup-Andersen (n 110) at p 376.
129 see “Too Much Medicine” (BMJ) <https://www.bmj.com/too-much-medicine> accessed 21 July 2023; Sarah Downer and others, “Food Is Medicine Research Action Plan” (2022); Michele Checchini and others, “Tackling of Unhealthy Diets, Physical Inactivity, and Obesity: Health Effects and Cost-Effectiveness” (2010) 376 Lancet 1775.
130 Dariush Mozaffarian and others, “Role of Government Policy in Nutrition—Barriers to and Opportunities for Healthier Eating” (2018) 361 The BMJ; Dariush Mozaffarian, Irwin Rosenberg and Ricardo Uauy, “History of Modern Nutrition Science—Implications for Current Research, Dietary Guidelines, and Food Policy” (2018) 361 BMJ.
131 Gillespie and others (n 111).
132 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 58.
133 European Public Health Alliance, ‘Joint Call to the Commission to Not Backtrack on the Work on Food Systems’ (26 October 2023) <https://epha.org/joint-call-to-the-commission-to-not-backtrack-on-the-work-on-food-systems/> accessed 13 December 2023.
134 European Commission, ‘Sustainable EU Food System – New Initiative’ (2021) <https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/13174-Sustainable-EU-food-system-new-initiative_en> accessed 13 September 2023.
135 Health and Food Safety Directorate General, ‘Ad-Hoc Meeting of the Advisory Group on Sustainability of Food Systems on a Legislative Framework for a Union Sustainable Food System (FSFS)’.
136 European Commission, ‘Legislative Framework for a Union Sustainable Food System - Advisory Group Meeting’.
137 Health and Food Safety Directorate General (n 135).
138 ibid.
139 Pesticide Action Network Europe and others, ‘Letter to Commissioner Kyriakides on Stopping the Reapproval of Glyphosate Due to Major Deficiencies in Carcinogenicity Assessment’ (2023) <https://food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-10/pesticides_renew_glyphosate_cso-to-comm_statement_20230907.pdf> accessed 21 November 2023.
140 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and others, ‘Peer Review of the Pesticide Risk Assessment of the Active Substance Glyphosate’ (2023) 21 EFSA Journal e08164.
141 EFSA and ECHA, ‘Reply Letter to Request for a Statement on the Carcinogenicity Assessment of Glyphosate Following Criticism by European Civil Society Organisations’ (2023) at p 7 <https://food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-10/pesticides_renew_glyphosate_echa-efsa-statement_20231005-00635.pdf> accessed 21 November 2023.
142 European Commission Draft Commission Implementing regulation for renewing the approval of the active substance glyphosate in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 540/2011 (n 75).
143 IARC (n 76).
144 European Commission, ‘Glyphosate’ (2023) <https://food.ec.europa.eu/plants/pesticides/approval-active-substances/renewal-approval/glyphosate_en> accessed 21 November 2023.
145 Silano (n 83) at p 403; Goverde (n 83) at p 172.
146 OECD (n 45) at pp 11, 20 and 21.
147 ibid at pp 20–1.
148 Genna Reed and others, ‘The Disinformation Playbook: How Industry Manipulates the Science-policy Process—and How to Restore Scientific Integrity’ (2021) 42 Journal of Public Health Policy 622.
149 IPES-Food (n 1) at p 59.
150 de Boer (n 16).
151 Parts D and E, Annex II, Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives OJ L 354/67 (Food Additives Regulation - FAR) (n 105).
152 EFSA (2017), ‘EFSA Explains Risk Assessment: Nitrites and Nitrates Added to Food’ at p 1.
153 ibid at pp 1–3.
154 ibid.
155 IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, International Agency for Research on Cancer and World Health Organization (eds), Ingested Nitrate and Nitrite, and Cyanobacterial Peptide Toxins (International Agency for Research on Cancer ; Distributed by WHO Press 2010) 43–325.
156 Julie de Yuka, ‘Charcuteries nitrées : comment le lobby de la charcuterie industrielle tente de bâillonner Yuka’ (Yuka, 30 September 2021) <https://yuka.io/nitrites-lobby-charcuterie/> accessed 24 July 2023; Guillaume Coudray, Nitrites dans la charcuterie : le scandale: Tout savoir pour mieux choisir ce que nous mettons dans nos assiettes. (HarperCollins 2023).
157 David B Resnik and Kevin C Elliott, ‘The Ethical Challenges of Socially Responsible Science’ (2016) 23 Accountability in research 31.
158 Piesse and Thirtle (n 120); Sacks and others (n 121); IPES-Food (n 1) at p 58.
159 IPES-Food (n 1) at p. 80; de Boer (n 16) at p 5.
160 Ibid. (n 1) at p 81.
161 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (n 89).
162 de Boer (n 16) at p 5.
163 Mozaffarian and others (n 130); Mozaffarian, Rosenberg and Uauy (n 130); Dariush Mozaffarian and Nita G Forouhi, ‘Dietary Guidelines and Health-Is Nutrition Science up to the Task?’ (2018) 360 BMJ k822.
164 ‘Research and Innovation – EU Action | European Union’ <https://european-union.europa.eu/priorities-and-actions/actions-topic/research-and-innovation_en> accessed 7 May 2023.
165 European Commission, ‘Food 2030 Pathways for Action: Research and Innovation Policy as a Driver for Sustainable, Healthy and Inclusive Food Systems’ (2020) at p 14.
166 Goverde (n 83) at p 177.
167 European Risk Forum (n 91) at p 82.
168 Art 6(2) GFL.
169 Art 3(12) GFL.
170 Millstone (n 35) at p 627.
171 Alemanno and Mahieu (n 100) at p 327.