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³ Carpenters, author's interview, Nakhalyn, 1 May 2006.

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⁶ “Artisanat Marocain: état des lieux,” ArtSouk, Promotion du Patrimoine, de la Culture et de l’Artisanat Marocain, http://www.artsouk.com/index.php?display=827&module=article (accessed 24 August 2014).

⁷ Marie E. Benjelloun, “Artisanat à Fès: première entreprise au Maroc, état de détresse,” Labyrinthes (March/April 2006): 40–41.

⁸ “‘Artisanat’: quelle stratégie pour un véritable essor du secteur?,” Royaume du Maroc, Ministere du tourisme de l’artisanat et de l’ecomomie sociale, http://www.artesnet.gov.ma/files/Artisanat-PreStrategie.pdf, 2005 (accessed 24 August 2014).

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¹⁰ Giddens, Anthony, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1991), 2Google Scholar.

¹¹ Terrio, Susan J., Crafting the Culture and History of French Chocolate (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2000), 13–15Google Scholar.

¹² For an example of other works that look at artisans in order to investigate various social phenomena, see Somers, Margaret R., “The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational and Network Approach,” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 623CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁵ On this point, my research also relates to the seminal work of Clifford Geertz in Sefrou, which, in addition to many other issues, paid close attention to language and narrativity. Geertz, Clifford, “Suq: the Bazaar Economy in Sefrou,” in Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society, ed. Geertz, Clifford, Geertz, Hildred, and Rosen, Lawrence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 123–244Google Scholar; Geertz, Clifford, “Toutes Directions: Reading the Signs in an Urban Sprawl,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 21 (1989): 291–306Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Barlow, Tani E., ed., Formations of Colonial Modernity in East Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Barlow, “Debates over Colonial Modernity in East Asia and Another Alternative,” Cultural Studies 26 (2012): 623Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Menon, Dilip M., “Religion and Colonial Modernity: Rethinking Belief and Identity,” Economic and Political Weekly 37 (2002): 1662–67Google Scholar; Hong, Guo-Juin, “Framing Time: New Women and the Cinematic Representation of Colonial Modernity in 1930s Shanghai,” East Asia Cultures Critique 15 (2007): 553–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cho, Younghan, “Colonial Modernity Matters?: Debates on Colonial Past in South Korea,” Cultural Studies 26 (2012): 645–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Barlow, “Debates over Colonial Modernity,” 617–44.

¹⁸ For recent uses of the term in discussions of Africa, see Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J., “Colonial Modernity and the African Worldview: Theorising and Historicising Religious Encounters in South-Western Zimbabwe,” Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review 27 (2011): 91–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wilson, Jacob C., Working Out Egypt: Effendi Masculinity and Subject Formation in Colonial Modernity, 1870–1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Barlow, “Debates over Colonial Modernity,” 623, 628.

²⁰ Escher, Anton and Wirth, Eugen, Die Medina von Fes: Geographische Beiträge zu Persistenz and Dynamik, Verfall and Erneuerungg einer traditionellen islamischen Stadt in handlungstheoretischer Sicht (Erlangen: Fränkische Geographische Gesellschaft, 1992)Google Scholar.

²¹ Simon M. O’Meara, An Architectural Investigation of Marinid and Waṭṭasid Fez Medina (674–961/1276–1554) in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law (Phd diss., University of Leeds, 2004), 3–4.

²² Radoine, “Urban Conservation of Fez-Medina,” 5; J. H. Crawford, “Cities: Morocco,” accessed 13 September 2014, http://www.carfree.com/fes/.

²³ In 2004, the crafts sector in Morocco represented 19 percent of GDP, employed more than 2 million artisans, and ensured the sustenance of more than one-fifth of the national population. That year's census in Fes recorded the number of artisans in each major occupation: 11,044 in leatherwork, 7,545 in weaving, 10,512 in metalwork, 3,517 in woodwork, 1,997 in pottery, 26 in basketry, 2,440 in various other crafts, and 4,742 in craft services. The total number of workers was 52,888. This data was taken from Royaume du Maroc, Ministere du Tourisme de l’Artisanat et de l’Ecomomie Sociale, Department de l’Artisanat et de l’Ecomomie Sociale, Delegation Regional de l’Artisanst, Fes, “Secteur de l’Artisanat à Fès: Une dynamique au profit du développement local et régional” (2005). See also Développement de Systèmes Culturels Territoriaux, L’Union Européene, Institut Méditerranéen, Euromed Heritage, and Royaume du Maroc Ministere de la Culture, “SP3—Plan d’action de l’equipe du Maroc,” 32.

²⁴ Radoine, Hassan, “Urban Conservation of Fez-Medina: A Post-Impact Appraisal,” Global Urban Development 4 (2008): 1–2Google Scholar; Burckhardt, Titus, Fez: City of Islam (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1992)Google Scholar.

²⁵ Vincent, Cornell, J., Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 1998), 355Google Scholar; Escher, Anton, “The Sacred Place is the ‘No-Place,’” Göttinger beiträge zur Asienforschung 2–3 (2003): 61Google Scholar.

²⁶ Eickelman, Dale F., The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002), 95Google Scholar.

²⁷ Coppersmiths, author's interview, Safarin, 14 May 2006. See Clifford Geertz's similar observations in regard to Sefrou in “Suq: the Bazaar Economy,” 203.

²⁸ Coppersmiths, author's interview, Safarin, 14 May 2006.

²⁹ Somers, “The Narrative Constitution of Identity,” 606.

³⁰ Benjamin, Walter, “The Storyteller,” in Selected Writings, vol. 3, 1935–1938, ed. Eiland, Howard and Jennings, Michael W. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 149–50Google Scholar.

³¹ Bakhtin, Mikhail M., Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, ed. Emerson, Caryl and Holquist, Michael, trans. Vern W. McGee (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 1986), 3–5, 94Google Scholar.

³² Somers, “The Narrative Constitution of Identity,” 607.

³³ al-Bakri, Abu ʿUbayd, Description de l’Afrique Septentrionale, trans. de Slane, Mac Guckin (Paris: A. Jourdan, 1913), 226–31Google Scholar.

³⁴ Abi Zarʿ al-Fasi, Abu al-Hassan ʿAli ibn, Kitab al-Anis al-Mutrib bi-Rawd al-Qirtas fi Akhbar Muluk al-Maghrib wa-Tarikh Madinat Fas (Rabat: Dar al-Mansur al-Tabaᶜa wa-l-Waraqa, 1972)Google Scholar.

³⁵ Ibid., 32–33.

³⁶ Ibid., 36.

³⁷ Tarik Sabry, “Migration as Popular Culture” (paper presented at the International Association for Media and Communication Research [IAMCR], 23rd congress, 2002), http://www.portalcomunicacion.com/bcn2002/n_eng/programme/prog_ind/papers/s/pdf/s007_sabry.pdf 3 (accessed 5 August 2012); Geoff D. Porter, “Unwitting Actors: the Preservation of Fez's Cultural Heritage,” Radical History Review 86 (2003): 136–37.

³⁸ Sabry, “Migration as Popular Culture,” 6. This transcription follows the original text.

³⁹ Ibn Abi Zarᶜ, Rawd al-Qirtas, 47–49.

⁴⁰ Khaldun, Ibn, The Muqaddimah, trans. Rosenthal, Franz (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958), 2:406Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Coppersmiths, author's interview, Safarin, 14 May 2006.

⁴² Carpenter, author's interview, Najaryn, 12 April 2006.

⁴³ Women's shoes manufacturers, authors interview, Fes medina, 6 May 2005; Si A., author's interview, Fes medina, 26 April 2006; Si F., author's interview, Safarin, 1 May 2006.

⁴⁴ See for example, Massignon, Louis, “Enquête sur les corporations d’artisans et de commerçants au Maroc,” Revue de monde Musulman 58 (1924): 41Google Scholar; and Berque, Jacques, “Deux Ans d’action Artisanale à Fès,” in Opera Minora III (Paris: Editions Bouchene, 2001), 23Google Scholar. The latter was originally published as “Deux ans d’action artisanale à Fès,” Questions Nord-Africaines 15 (1939): 3–28.

⁴⁵ Africanus, Leo, The History and Description of Africa, translated in 1600 by Pory, John, edited in 1896 by Robert Brown (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1896), 416–86Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 436–37.

⁴⁷ Massignon, “Enquête sur les corporations,” 72, 97; Miner, Horace M., “Traditional Mobility Among the Weavers of Fez,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 117 (1973): 19Google Scholar; Maalouf, Amin, Leo Africanus (New York: New Amsterdam, 1986)Google Scholar; Laila Miyara, “Les Éternels ‘Zerzayas’ de la Médina, Les Gardiens du Temple,” Labyrinthes (March/April 2006): 42.

⁴⁸ See references to al-Wazzan on travelers’ websites, for example, “Henna Souk,” Lonely Planet, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/morocco/the-mediterranean-coast-and-the-rif/fes/sights/markets-bazaars/henna-souk (accessed 15 September 2014). On the student voyages, see Miriam Cooke and Bruce Lawrence, “In Search of Leo Africanus: Duke Students Retrace Early Modern History,” Transitions Abroad, 2004, http://www.transitionsabroad.com/publications/magazine/0503/study_abroad_in_search_of_leo_africanus.shtml (accessed 13 September 2014).

⁴⁹ Carvajal, Luis del Mármol, L’Afrique de Marmol, trans. Perrot, Nicolas (Paris: Louis Billaine, 1667), 157–63Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Ibid, 159.

⁵¹ Irbouh, Hamid, Art in the Service of Colonialism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 27, 162Google Scholar.

⁵² El Moudden, Abderrahmane, “The Eighteenth Century: A Poor Relation in the Historiography of Morocco,” in The Maghrib in Question: Essays in History and Historiography, ed. Gall, Michel Le and Perkins, Kenneth J. (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press, 1997), 201–11Google Scholar; Mohamed El-Mansour, “Moroccan Historiography since Independence,” in The Maghrib in Question, 109–10.

⁵³ Pennell, Richard C., Morocco since 1830: A History (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 40–67Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ See Buffa, John, Travels through the Empire of Morocco (London: J. J. Stockdale, 1810)Google Scholar; Beauclerk, George, A Journey to Morocco (London: Poole and Edwards, 1828)Google Scholar; Rohlfs, Gerhard, Adventures in Morocco and Journeys through the Oases of Draa and Tafilet (London: Sampson Low, Marston & Son, 1874)Google Scholar; Leared, Arthur, A Visit to the Court of Morocco (London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1879)Google Scholar; Colvillle, Henry E., A Ride in Petticoats and Slippers (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, 1880)Google Scholar; Trotter, Philip D., Our Mission to the Court of Morocco (Edinburgh: David Douglas, 1881)Google Scholar; and Cunninghame, Robert B. G., Mogreb-el-Acksa (London: W. Heinemann, 1898)Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ De Amicis, Edmondo. M., “Le Maroc, Fez,” Le tour du monde 38 (1879): 129–44Google Scholar; de La Martiniere, Maximilien A. C. Henri P., Morocco: Journeys in the Kingdom of Fez and to the Court of Mulai Hassan (London: Whittaker, 1889)Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ De Amicis, “Le Maroc, Fez,” 133.

⁵⁷ Stutfield, Hugh E. M., 1200 Miles’ Ride through Morocco (London: S. Low, 1886), 80–81Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ al-Nasiri, Abu al-ʿAbas Ahmad bin Khalid, Kitab al-Istiqsaʾ li-Akhbar Duwal al-Maghrib al-Aqsa, 9 vols. (Casablanca: al-Dar al-Baydaʾ: Dar al-Kitab, 1954)Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Ibid., 3:129–33.

⁶⁰ Massignon, “Enquête sur les corporations,” 38–39.

⁶¹ Tanners, author's interview, Dar Dabagh, 13 April 2006; coppersmiths, author's interview, Safarin and Sbaghyn, 1 May 2006.

⁶² Sebti, Abdelahad, “Chroniques de la contestation citadine: Fes et la Revolte des Tanneurs (1873–1874),” Hesperis-Tamuda 29 (1991): 283–312Google Scholar; Dennerlein, Bettina, “Savoir religieux et debat politique au Maroc: une consultation des ‘gens de Fes’ en 1886,” Hesperis-Tamuda 39 (2001): 119–32Google Scholar.

⁶³ Bakhtin, Speech Genres, 94; Kristeva, Julia, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980) 64–91Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Margaret Somers defines public narratives as “those narratives attached to cultural and institutional formations larger than the single individual, to intersubjective networks or institutions, however local or grand, micro or macro-stories about American social mobility, the ‘freeborn Englishman,’ the working-class hero, and so on.” Somers, “The Narrative Constitution of Identity,” 619.

⁶⁵ See the ẓahīr of 8 April 1917 on municipal reorganization, which was published in Bulletin Officiel, 30 April 1917, 486.

⁶⁶ “Le Secrétaire Générale du Protectorat de la République Française au Maroc, à Monsieur le Directeur Général de l’Instruction Publique des Beaux-Arts et des Antiquités,” 2 February 1923, 417 S.G.P. Record group DIP-4, Centre des Archives diplomatiques de Nantes (hereafter CADN).

⁶⁷ Massignon, “Enquête sur les corporations,” 81–82, 180–81.

⁶⁸ “Artisanat Indigene (Résumé du dossier), Commission du mardi 20 avril 1937,” record group CC-6B, CADN.

⁶⁹ “Haut Comité Méditerranéen et de l’Afrique du Nord, Les Caractères Spécifiques et la Situation Présente de l’Artisanat Marocain,” November 1938, record group DI-406, CADN.

⁷⁰ This text also portrays another recurring colonial motif: the attempt to differentiate between “good Berbers” and “bad Arabs.” Gellner, Ernest and Micaud, Charles, eds., Arabs and Berbers (London: Duckworth, 1972)Google Scholar; L. Voinot, “La Reglementation du Travail des Indigenes au Maroc, May 1931,” record group DAI-444/82, CADN.

⁷¹ Le Tourneau, Roger, Fès avant le Protectorat (Casablanca: Soc. marocaine de libr. et d’éd, 1949)Google Scholar.

⁷² Ibid., 297–98, 360.

⁷³ Shadhiliyya is one of the important currents of Sufism, associated with the teaching and spiritual authority of the 13th-century Moroccan mystic, Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili. Lory, Pierre, “Shādhiliyya,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, ed. Bearman, Peri, Bianquis, Thierry, Bosworth, Clifford E., van Donzel, Emeri J., and Heinrichs, Wolfhart P (Leiden: Brill, 2014)Google Scholar, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/s-h-a-d-h-iliyya-SIM_6736.

⁷⁴ Burckhardt, Fez: City of Islam, 165.

⁷⁵ Ibid., 79.

⁷⁶ For example: Si A., author's interview, Fes medina, 1 May 2006.

⁷⁷ Si F., author's interview, Fes medina, 7 May 2005.

⁷⁸ Irbouh, Art in the Service of Colonialism.

⁷⁹ Handmade gold thread manufacture, for example, did not survive. Ouaknine-Yekutieli, Orit, “Rage Against the Machine in the Mellah of Fès,” Hespéris Tamuda 44 (2009): 89–108Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Développement de Systèmes Culturels Territoriaux, L’Union Européene, 32.

⁸¹ Exemplifying this point is the new crafts center in Fes. See “Présentation du Centre Artisanal de Fes (CFQMA),” Centre de Formation et de Qualification dans les Métiers de l’Artisanat, Batha-Fès, http://www.forartisanat.ma/fr/ (accessed 24 August 2014).

⁸² Zamponi, Simonetta F., “Of Storytellers and Master Narratives: Modernity, Memory, and History in Fascist Italy,” Social Science History 22 (1998), 437–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸³ This mood has its beginnings in the early stages of the emergence of modern thought. For example, see Jean-Jacques Roseau's general concept of social evolution according to which things always go from better to worse. Latour, Bruno and Strum, Shirley, “Human Social Origins: Oh Please, Tell us Another Story,” Journal of Biological and Social Structure 9 (1986): 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁵ Barlow, “Debates over Colonial Modernity,” 623–30.

⁸⁶ See, for example, Le Matin, “Interview 90 Minutes pour Convaincre: Anis Birou Secrétaire d’Etat Chargé de l’Artisanat,” Le Matin, 22 Avril 13/519 (2008): 4–5, accessed 14 June 2012, http://www.artisanat.gov.ma/files/forumfr.pdf.

⁸⁷ “le Général Nogués, Résident Général de France au Maroc, Commandant en Chef, à Son Excellence Monsieur le Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres,” 12 June 1937, record group CC-6B, CADN.

⁸⁸ Barlow, “Debates over Colonial Modernity,” 627, 633.

⁸⁹ Kipling, Rudyard, Just So Stories (Sioux Falls, S. Dak.: Nu Vision Publications, LLC, 2009), 12Google Scholar.

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⁹² Royaume du Maroc, “Artisanat”: Quelle stratégie pour un véritable essor du secteur?

⁹³ Somers, “The Narrative Constitution of Identity,” 619.

⁹⁴ To quote Anthony Giddens, “Modernity is a post-traditional order, but one in which the sureties of tradition and habit have been replaced by the certitude of rational knowledge. Doubt, a pervasive feature of modern critical reason, permeates into everyday life as well as philosophical consciousness, and forms a general existential dimension of contemporary social world.” Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity, 2–3.

⁹⁵ Milligan, Don, Raymond Williams: Hope and Defeat in the Struggle for Socialism (Studies in Anti-Capitalism, 2007), 271Google Scholar, http://www.studiesinanti-capitalism.net/StudiesinAnti-Capitalism/RaymondWilliams_files/WContents.pdf (accessed 14 June 2012).

⁹⁶ Don Milligan, “Lecture 17: The Crises of Capitalist Development. Anti-Capitalism: Ideas, Objectives and Methods of the New Social Movements” (lecture, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK, 2011), 1, http://www.studiesinanticapitalism.net/LECTURES&NOTES_files/LECTURE1711.pdf (accessed 14 June 2012).

⁹⁷ Clarke, Simon, Marx's Theory of Crisis (London: Macmillan, 1994), 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁸ Rand Simberg, “The Strategy of Perpetual Crisis,” Transterrestrial Musings (2009), http://www.transterrestrial.com/?p=17175 (accessed 14 June 2012).

⁹⁹ Damon Linker, “The Age of Perpetual Crisis,” The New Republic (2009), http://www.tnr.com/blog/damon-linker/the-age-perpetual-crisis (accessed 14 June 2012).

¹⁰⁰ Berque, Deux Ans d’action Artisanale à Fès; “Haut Comité Méditerranéen et de l’Afrique du Nord, Les Caractères Spécifiques et la Situation Présente de l’Artisanat Marocain,” November 1938, Record group DI-406, CADN.

¹⁰¹ Berque, Deux Ans d’action Artisanale à Fès; “Procés-verbal de la Réunion Relative à l ‘Artisanat, Lundi, 27 Octobre 1947,” 29 October 1947, 16/C. Record group DI-413, CADN.

¹⁰² “La Métropole accorde . . ., La Vigie Marocaine,” 30 April 1947, record group DI-550, CADN.

¹⁰³ “Le Chef de Batallion de la Paillonne, Chef du Service Social Marocain, Marseille à Monsieur le Préfet, Directeur des Offices du Maroc en France,” 10 January 1948, 2/2C, record group DI-550, CADN.

¹⁰⁴ “Le Directeur du Cabinet, à Monsieur le Directeur de l’Intérieur. Exposition itinérante ‘Maroc,’” 25 June 1954, JB/CM No.8972, 4/SI, record group DI-550, CADN.

¹⁰⁵ For a similar case of local artisans appealing directly to the resident general for assistance, see Ouaknine-Yekutieli, “Rage Against the Machine.”

¹⁰⁶ “Monsieur l’Ambassadeur de France Eirik Labonne, Commissaire Résident Général de France au Maroc,” p. 3, 10 July 1946, Record group CC-6B, CADN.

¹⁰⁷ See Zamponi, “Of Storytellers and Master Narratives,” 417.

¹⁰⁸ Benjamin, “The Storyteller,” 149–50.

¹⁰⁹ Embroiderers, author's interview, taᶜāwaniya, 17 April 2006.