Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-t5pn6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T03:34:57.264Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE KENNEDY ADMINISTRATION, COUNTERINSURGENCY, AND IRAQ'S FIRST BAʿTHIST REGIME

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 November 2011

Weldon C. Matthews
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the relationship between the administration of President John F. Kennedy and the Arab Baʿth Socialist Party's first regime in Iraq from February to November 1963. It demonstrates that Kennedy administration officials had adopted a paradigm of modernization through which they believed recently decolonized countries could achieve high-consumption economies with democratic governments. Because this process appeared threatened by communist-supported insurgencies, the administration developed a doctrine of counterinsurgency, which entailed support for the repressive capacities of developing states. Administration officials regarded the Iraqi Baʿth Party as an agent of Iraq's modernization and of anticommunist counterinsurgency. They consequently cultivated supportive relationships with Baʿthist officials, police commanders, and members of the party's militia, despite the regime's wide-scale human rights violations. The American relationship with militia members began before the coup that brought the Baʿthists to power, and Baʿthist police commanders involved in the coup were trained in the United States.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 4 , November 2011 , pp. 635 - 653
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

Author's note: I thank Beth Baron, Sara Pursley, and three anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and corrections and Oakland University for a faculty research grant, which made this article possible.

1 Schmitz, David F., Thank God They're On Our Side: The United States & Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–1965 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Streeter, Steven M., Managing the Counterrevolution: the United States and Guatemala 1954–1961 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2000)Google Scholar; Popp, Roland, “An Application of Modernization Theory during the Cold War? The Case of Pahlavi Iran,” The International History Review 30 (2008): 76–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Citino, Nathan, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC: Eisenhower, King Saʿud, and the Making of U.S.–Saudi Relations, 2nd ed. (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

2 Batatu, Hanna, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Baʿthists, and Free Officers (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978), 966–94Google Scholar, 1003–1026. Space does not permit an examination of the Kurdish insurrection here.

3 David, James, “Two Steps Forward, One Step Back: Mixed Progress Under the Automatic/Systematic Declassification Review Program,” The American Archivist 70 (2007): 242–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Schmitz, Thank God They're On Our Side, 239–44; Latham, Michael E., Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Little, Douglas, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 193–227Google Scholar; Hunt, Michael H., The American Ascendancy: How the United States Gained and Wielded Global Dominance (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 208–209Google Scholar, 212–13.

5 Popp, “An Application of Modernization Theory”; Simpson, Bradley, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008), 40–43Google Scholar; Marquis, Jefferson P., “The Other Warriors: American Social Scientists and Nation Building in Vietnam,” Diplomatic History 24 (2000): 79–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Cullather, Nick, “Modernization Theory,” in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 2nd ed., ed. Hogan, Michael J. and Paterson, Thomas G. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 212–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gilman, Nils, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in the Cold War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 138–202Google Scholar.

7 Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 11–12; Latham, Michael, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaca, N.Y.: The Cornell University Press, 2011), 36–92Google Scholar, 123–56.

8 Schlesinger, Arthur Jr., “Report to the President on Latin American Mission, February 12–March 3, 1961,” 10 March 1961, in Foreign Relations of the United States 1961–1963, vol. 12, The American Republics (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1996), 11Google Scholar. Italics in original.

9 Blaufarb, Douglas S., The Counterinsurgency Era: U.S. Doctrine and Performance (New York: The Free Press, 1977), 52–88Google Scholar; Shafer, D. Michael, Deadly Paradigms: The Failure of Counterinsurgency Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988), 79–132Google Scholar; McClintock, Michael, Instruments of Statecraft: U.S. Guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency, and Counterterrorism: 1940–1990 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), 161–239Google Scholar; Freedman, Lawrence, Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Laos, Cuba and Vietnam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 287–92Google Scholar; Rosenau, William, “The Kennedy Administration, U.S. Foreign Internal Security Assistance and the Challenge of ‘Subterranean War,’ 1961–1963,” Small Wars and Insurgencies 14 (2003): 65–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Streeter, Stephen M., “Nation-Building in the Land of Eternal Counter-Insurgency: Guatemala and the Contradictions of the Alliance for Progress,” Third World Quarterly 17 (2006): 57–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Haefele, Mark H., “Walt Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: Ideas and Action,” in Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War, ed. Engerman, David C. et al. (Amherst and Boston, Mass.: University of Massachusetts, 2003), 81–103Google Scholar.

11 Rostow, W. W., The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 164Google Scholar.

12 Milne, David, America's Rasputin: Walt Rostow and the Vietnam War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008), 87–88Google Scholar; Freedman, Kennedy's Wars, 306–39.

13 W. W. Rostow, “Guerrilla Warfare in the Underdeveloped Areas,” Department of State Bulletin, 7 August, 1961, 234.

14 Pye, Lucian, Guerrilla Communism in Malaya: Its Social and Political Meaning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1956), 344–46Google Scholar.

15 Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 180–90; Simpson, Economists with Guns, 67–73.

16 Rostow, “Guerrilla Warfare,” 235.

17 Memorandum for the President, “Senior Interdepartmental Counter-Insurgency School,” 20 April 1962, National Security Files (herafter NSF), Meetings and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI) 4/6/61–6/7/62, John F. Kennedy Library (hereafter JFKL).

18 Dean Rusk, Department of State circular (AID/W), “Inter-Agency Seminar on Problems of Development and Internal Defense,” 8/1/62 (1 August 1962), NSF, box 413, Counterinsurgency, Police Program, 1961–1963, folder 3, JFKL; Shafer, Deadly Paradigms, 114–15.

19 McGeorge Bundy, “National Security Action Memorandum No. 182,” 24 August 1962, NSF, Meetings, and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI), 7/62–11/63, JFKL.

20 “United States Overseas Internal Defense Policy,” 3, 11, 20, enclosure to circular airgram to U.S. embassies, 6 July 1962, NSF, Meetings, and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI), 7/62–11/63, JFKL.

21 Charles Maechling, “Camelot, Robert Kennedy and Counter-Insurgency: A Memoir,” Virginia Quarterly Review (1999): 446.

22 “Overseas Internal Defense Policy,” 27.

23 Bundy to MacNamara, “National Security Action Memorandum No. 56,” 28 June 1961, RG 286 (records of the United States Agency for International Development), USAID, Office of Public Safety, Office of the Director, box 5, IPS, National Security Council, National Archives College Park (hereafter NACP).

24 Minutes of the Meeting of the Special Group, 20 December 1962, RG 286, USAID, OPS, Office of the Director, box 5, IPS, Special Group Meetings, December 1962, NACP.

25 Dann, Uriel, Iraq Under Qassem: A Political History, 1958–1963 (New York: Praeger, 1969)Google Scholar.

26 Ismael, Tareq Y., The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Iraq (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 79–102Google Scholar.

27 Phillips Talbot, “Situation Developing in Iraq,” 16 December 1961, NSF, White House Memoranda, Robert W. Komer, box 426, Iraq 1961–1963, JFKL.

28 RG 263 (records of the CIA), National Intelligence Surveys, 1948–1971, IRAQ, “Subversion,” vol. 25, 1 September 1965: 26, NACP.

29 Batatu, The Old Social Classes, 971–82.

30 Melbourne to Rusk, 11 February 1963, RG 59, box 3946, POL 26, NACP.

31 For accusations by leading Baʿthists of the period that their colleagues had secretly conspired with the United States in the coup and for a denial, see Dr. ʿAli Karim Saʿid, ʿIraq 8 Shubat 1963: Min Hiwar al-Mafahim ila Hiwar al-Dam, Murajaʿat fi Dhakirat Talib Shabib (Iraq of 8 February 1963: From the Dialogue of Concepts to the Dialogue of Blood, Re-examinations of the Recollection of Talib Shabib) (Damascus: Dar al-Kunuz al-Adabiyya, 1999), 271, 291n1; al-Fukayki, Hani, Awkar al-Hazima: Tajribati fi Hizb al-Baʿth (The Dins of Defeat: My Experience in the Baʿth Party) (London: Riad el-Rayyes Books, 1993), 269–70Google Scholar.

32 Melbourne to State Department, 7 February 1963, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP.

33 “Hamid Khalkhal,” “Hazim Jawad,” “SAʿDI, Ali Salih,” “Talib Husayn SHABIB,” and other documents in RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL–POL15–2, NACP; Batatu, The Old Social Classes, 1004–1007. See also Melbourne to Rusk, 8 February 1963, NSF, box 117A, IRAQ 1/63–2/63, JFKL.

34 Roger Hilsman, “The Outlook for the Iraqi Coup Regime of February 8 1963,” RG 59, Undersecretary for Political Affairs, Subject Files 1961–1963, box 5, Iraq, NACP.

35 Bass, Warren, Support any Friend: Kennedy's Middle East and the Making of the U.S.–Israel Alliance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 63–143Google Scholar.

36 Komer to Bundy, 6 March 1963, NSF, Records and Memoranda, box 322, Robert Komer, 3/63–5/63, JFKL.

37 Komer to Bundy, 14 February 1963, NSF, White House Memoranda, Robert W. Komer, box 426, Iraq 1961–1963, JFKL.

38 Hilsman, “The Outlook for the Iraqi Coup Regime.”

39 Melbourne to Rusk, 9 February 1963, RG 59, box 3946, POL IRAQ-U.S., NACP.

40 Talbot to Rusk, “Implications of the Second Iraqi Revolution,” 15 February 1963, box 3945, RG 59, POL 26 IRAQ, NACP.

41 Robert G. Neumann, “Toward a New Balance in the Middle East. Aspects of Economic and Military Aid,” 1 May 1963, NSF, Robert W. Komer, box 436, Middle East 1/61–11/63, folder 3, JFKL.

42 Killgore to Strong, 20 September 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 12, NACP.

43 Julius Holmes (Tehran) to Rusk, 13 March 1963, RG 59, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP; Memorandum for the Secretary of State, “Counterinsurgency Orientation Program,” undated, NSF, box 279, Department of Defense (B), Subjects, Special Warfare 1962–1963, JFKL; Rusk to Tehran Embassy, 15 March 1963, RG 59, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP; Melbourne to Rusk, 16 March 1963, RG 59, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP.

44 “Memorandum for the Special Group CI Assistants,” 2 August 1962, NSF, Meetings and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI) 7/62–11/63.

45 Wilber, Donald N., Regime Change in Iran: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, November 1952–August 1953 (Nottingham, U.K.: Spokesman Books, 2006), 24Google Scholar, 28–29, 34, 38, 41, 48, 54, 57, 91–99.

46 “Memorandum for the secretary of the Navy and Joint Chiefs of Staff,” unsigned and undated (written between 1 May and 30 June 1965) and “Security Reappraisals for the Forward Defense Countries (In This Case Iran and Pakistan) for U. S. Policy Purposes for the 1970s,” early 1965, Eric W. Pollard Papers, collection no. 565, Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C.

47 Wilber, Regime Change in Iran, 20, 34; Melbourne, Roy, Conflict and Crisis: A Foreign Service Story, rev. ed. (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1997), 151–59Google Scholar.

48 Strong to Melbourne, 1 March 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 7, NACP.

49 Melbourne, Conflict and Crisis, 228; Memorandum by Michael V. Forrestal to Averell Harriman, 20 May 1963, NSF, Meetings and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI) 7/61–11/63, JFKL; minutes of the Special Group (CI), 16 May 1963, RG 286, OPS, Office of the Director, box 6, IPS 7–2, Special Group (CI) Meetings May 1963, NACP.

50 Smolansky, Oles M., The Soviet Union and the Arab East under Khrushchev (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1974), 227–40Google Scholar.

51 U.S. Army Attaché (Baghdad embassy) to Secretary of State, 10 February 1963, RG 59, box 3943, POL 2–4 IRAQ, NACP; Dann, Iraq Under Qassem, 364, 367, 369; Saʿid, ʿIraq 8 Shubat, 51n1, 165–167, 171–72.

52 Al-Munharifun min al-Haris al-Qawmi fi al-Madd al-Shuʿubi: Taht Aʾshiʿat 18 Tishrin al-Thani 1963 (The Deviationists among the National Guard in the Anti-Arab Nationalist Deluge: Under the Rays of 18 November 1963) (Baghdad: Haiʾat al-Dalil al-Dawli, 1964).

53 Translation of Hassanayn Haykal, “A Meeting in Paris,” enclosure to airgram of Donald Bergus (Cairo embassy) to Department of State, 2 October 1963, RG 59, box 3690, POL 15–1 JORDAN, box 3690, NACP. Husayn claimed that the interview was “an outrageous distortion” of his remarks, which he had understood to be confidential. William Macomber (Amman) to Department of State, 9 October 1963, RG 59, box 3690, POL 2 JORDAN, NACP.

54 Macomber to Department of State, 1 May 1963, RG 59, POL 2 Jordan, box 3690, NACP. On inter-Arab tensions, see Kerr, Malcom, The Arab Cold War: 1958–1967: A Study of Ideology in Politics, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 54–125Google Scholar.

55 Melbourne to Rusk, 20 February 1963, NSF, box 117 A, IRAQ, 1/63–2/63, JFKL.

56 Melbourne to State Department, 27 March 1963, NSF, box 117, IRAQ 3/63–5/63, JFKL.

57 Embassy to Rusk, 11 February 1963, RG 59, box 3946, POL 26, NACP.

58 B. H. Selcke, 10 March 1964, “USIS Youth Activities—Iraq,” RG 59, Lot file 66 D 470, box 3, EDX-12, NACP.

59 Lakeland to State Department, 23 April 1963, RG 59, box 3946, POL 29 IRAQ, NACP. On Basim, see al-Kitab al-Aswad: Iʿtirafat al-Shiyuʿiyin (The Black Book: Confessions of the Communists) (Baghdad: Wizarat al-Irshad, 1963), 66–71, 102–103; Batatu, The Old Social Classes, 984.

60 Lakeland to Department of State, 15 October 1963, RG 59, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP.

61 Henebry to Department of State, 10 July 1963, RG 59, box 3945, POL REBELLION, COUPS, INSURGENCY, IRAQ, NACP; Henebry to State Department, 25 June 1963, RG 59, box 3727, DEF IRAQ, NACP; Basra consulate to State Department, 10 July 1963, RG 59, box 3945, POL 26 IRAQ, NACP.

62 Al-Munharifun, 142.

63 Ibid., 122.

64 Lakeland to Department of State, 4 and 7 January 1964, RG 59, box 2338, POL 12 IRAQ, NACP.

65 Killgore to Walter E. Jessop, 1 July 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 13–2, NACP.

66 John E. MacDonald to Killgore, 16 July 1963, RG 59 Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 13–2, NACP.

67 ʿAlwan to U Thant, et al. and attachments, 17 August 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 13–2, NACP.

68 Embassy (Baghdad) to Rusk, 12 February 1963, RG 59, box 3690, CSM IRAQ, NACP.

69 “Overseas Internal Defense Policy,” Annex B, 1.

70 “Status of Military Counterinsurgency Programs (U)”, V-75, NSF, Departments and Agencies, Department of Defense (B), box 279, Status of Military Counterinsurgency Programs 9/18/63, JFKL.

71 Taylor memorandum for the Special Group (CI), “U. S. Support of Foreign Paramilitary Forces,” 15 October 1963, RG 286, USAID, Office of Public Safety, Office of the Director, box 5, IPS 7–2, Special Group (CI) GENERAL, NACP.

72 Byron Engle memorandum for Joseph Taylor, 9 December 1963, RG 286, USAID, OPS, Office of the Director, box 5, IPS 7–2, Special Group (CI), GENERAL, NACP.

73 Kuzmarov, Jeremy, “Modernizing Repression: Police Training, Political Violence, and Nation-Building in the ‘American Century,’” Diplomatic History 33 (2009): 191–221CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Huggins, Martha K., Political Policing: The United States and Latin America (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998), 79–116Google Scholar; Langguth, A. J., Hidden Terrors: The Truth About U.S. Police Operations in Latin America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 47–54Google Scholar; Rosenau, “The Kennedy Administration,” 79–90.

74 National Security Action Memorandum No. 177, 7 August 1962, NSF, Robert W. Komer, box 413, Counterinsurgency, Police Program 1961–1963, Folder 3, JFKL; Rosenau, “The Kennedy Administration,” 82–84, 97n128, 97n129.

75 Quoted in Holden, Robert H., Armies without Nations: Public Violence and State Formation in Central America, 1821–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 117Google Scholar.

76 Komer memorandum for Bundy and Taylor, “Should Police Programs Be Transferred to DOD?” 18 April 1962, NSF, Meetings and Memoranda, box 319, Special Group (CI) 4/6/61–6/7/62, JFKL.

77 Memorandum for the Special Group for meeting 11 June 1964, RG 59, Lot File 68 D 541, box 5, Special Group (CI), 5/28/64–7/10/64, NACP.

78 Thurston, Arthur M., Survey of Training Activities of the A.I.D. Police Assistance Program (n.p.: Department of State: Agency for International Development, Office of Public Safety, November 1962), 42–48Google Scholar (quoted passage at 48), in NSF, Robert W. Komer, box 413, Police Program, 1961–1963, folder 3, JFKL.

79 “Fact Sheet on Iraq,” 4 March 1964, attachment to Byron Engle, “Iraq Internal Defense Plan: the Directorate of Police,” 5 March 1964, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 2, POL 23–2, NACP; Edward C. Kennelly, “Iraq—Inquiry from the New York Herald Tribune,” 20 August 1958, RG 286 (records of AID), Operations Division, Africa, Near East, South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP.

80 Riddleberger (ICA, Washington) to Baghdad embassy 9 and 16 February 1961, and Labouisse (ICA, Washington) to Baghdad Embassy, 3 March 1961, RG 286, Operations Division, Africa, Near East, South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP. See also other airgams in this file for names of additional officers trained in the U.S. in 1961.

81 House of Representatives Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, Investigation of Publication of Select Committee on Intelligence Report, 94th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1976, 675. See also Agee, Phillip, Inside the Company: CIA Diary (New York: Bantam Books, 1975), 474Google Scholar, 478, 492, 633; Huggins, Political Policing, 88–90.

82 Melbourne to AID, 27 September 1962, RG 286, AID Operations Division, Africa, Near East, South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP.

83 “Fact Sheet on Iraq.”

84 Riddleberger to Baghdad embassy, 11 February 1961, RG 286, Operations Division Africa Near East South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP; F. Gulick, “IRAQ—Western-Trained Officials,” 9 April 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, AID 10, NACP.

85 Al-Munharifun, 169. See also Saʿid, ʿIraq 8 Shubat, 145.

86 “Al-Shurta ʿAmalat maʿa al-Thawra qabla Inbithaqiha” (The Police Worked with the Revolution before Its Outbreak), al-Jamahir 10, 22 February 1963, 3. For more on his arrest and its date, see al-Fukayki, Awkar al-Hazima, 190–91; “Hazim Jawad” (undated), RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL–POL15–2, NACP. The director general is referred to by Saʿid and in al-Munharifun as Ahmad Amin Mahmud and by Fukayki and in al-Jamahir as Ahmad Amin. These all certainly refer to the same person. Riddleberger refers to a “Mahmood,” who may be the same person, in his airgram to the Baghdad embassy, 11 February 1961, RG 286, Operations Division, Africa, Near East, South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP.

87 Al-Munharifun, 169; F. Gulick, “IRAQ—Western-Trained Officials”; Riddleberger to Baghdad embassy, 11 February 1961, RG 286, Operations Division Africa Near East South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP; “Fact Sheet on Iraq.”

88 F. Gulick, “IRAQ—Western-Trained Officials.”

89 Embassy to Department of State, 10 September 1961 (sic, misdated), and Northrop H. Kirk to Department of State, 9 July 1963 and enclosure dated 6 July 1963, RG 59, box 3945, POL 23, NACP.

90 Kennelly to Mr. and Mrs. Clyde Phelps, 8 July 1958, RG 286, Operations Division, Africa, Near East, South Asia, Subject File, box 62, IRAQ–IPS, NACP.

91 Embassy to State Department, 10 September 1961 (sic, misdated), box 3945, POL 23 IRAQ, NACP.

92 Department of State, Agency for International Development, Class Book: Senior Class, International Police Academy, December 1, 1963–February 28, 1964, 13, RG 59, Lot File 68 D 541, box 5, Special Group (CI), 5/28/64–7/10/64, NACP.

93 “Kifah Shurtat al-Najada didd Aʿidaʾ al-Thawra” (Struggle of the Emergency Police against Enemies of the Revolution), al-Jamahir 12, 24 February 1963, 3.

94 Minutes of the Meeting of the Special Group (CI), 8 August 1963, RG 286, OPS, Office of the Director, 7–2, Special Group (CI) Meetings August 1963, NACP.

95 “Tentative Agenda Items for Future Special Group (CI) Meetings,” 15 November 1963, NSF, Robert W. Komer, box 414, Counterinsurgency Special Group 7/62–11/63, JFKL; Guy A. Lee to Maechling, 20 January 1964, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 2, POL 23, NACP; memorandum for Governor Harriman, 9 October 1963, RG 59, Lot File 68 D 451, box 3, Special Group (CI) 8/8/63–10/31/63, NACP; Philips Talbot to the Special Group (CI), (undated), RG 59, Lot File 68 D 451, box 3, Special Group (CI) 8/8/63–10/31/63, NACP.

96 Batatu, The Old Social Classes, 1018–1031.

97 Minutes of the Meeting of the Special Group (CI), 6 March 1964, RG 286, OPS, Office of the Director, box 6, IPS 7–2 Special Group CI Meetings March 1964, NACP.

98 John D. Jernegan, “Iraq Internal Defense Plan,” 3 March 1964, RG 59, box 2340, POL 23–1 IRAQ, NACP.

99 Guy A. Lee to Roger Davies et al., 24 December 1963, RG 59, Lot File 66 D 470, box 1, POL 32, NACP.

100 Lee to Raymond Hare, 6 October 1965, RG 59, Lot File 75 D 175, box 1, U.S. Policy—Counterinsurgency Task Force—2, NACP.

101 “Businessman's Discussion with President on U.S. Role in Iraq,” 30 June 1964, RG 59, Lot 66 D 470, box 3, POL IRAQ-U.S., NACP.

102 Strong to State Department, 3 December 1963, RG 59, box 3955, POL 12 IRAQ, NACP.

103 Henebry to the State Department, 1 April 1965, RG 59, box 2338, POL 13 IRAQ, NACP.