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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 April 2009
The closing decades of Ottoman rule in Palestine (the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries), a crucial period in the history of the area, have already received vast attention from scholars and other writers. They have used an abundance of source material, including documents belonging to individuals and institutions, consular reports, memoirs, travel books, and newspapers. But in contrast to earlier periods in Ottoman Palestine, very little has been done, as yet, to bring to light and utilize official Ottoman documents. This, of course, is absolutely necessary if the views and actions of the ruling power are to be described and analyzed, and—because the authorities must have had direct and reliable knowledge of the conditions of the land—if a more complete and balanced picture is to be drawn of the history of the country.
1 A notable exception is Gerber's, Haim work, and particularly his Ottoman Rule in Jerusalem, 1890–1914 (Berlin, 1985).Google Scholar Among other sources, he relies heavily on the protocols of the Administrative Council of the province of Jerusalem, as well as the collection of Ali Ekrem Bey's papers and other documents found in the Israeli State Archives.
2 This focus on the career of an Ottoman official sets this article apart from such works as Gerber's (cited in note 1). Gerber, it should be added, concentrates mostly on administrative matters, whereas the present article deals more with the challenges presented to the Ottoman government by the activities of the European powers, and by Jews and Arabs. It also touches on the personal problems encountered by Ottoman functionaries.
3 There is no separate biography of Ali Ekrem (Bolayir), but there are short sketches of his life in various encyclopedias and biographical dictionaries. See, for example, Banarh, Nihad S., “Bolayir, Ali Ekrem,” in Istanbul Ansiklopedisi, 10 vols., ed. Koçu, Reşad E., 6:2949–52.Google Scholar Ali Ekrem's daughter, Selma, published an autobiography that includes interesting information about her father: Ekrem, Selma, Unveiled: The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl (New York, 1930).Google Scholar
4 Manneh, Butrus Abu, “The Rise of the Sanjak of Jerusalem in the Late 19th Century,” in The Palestinians and the Middle East Conflict, ed. Ben-Dor, Gabriel (Tel Aviv, 1968), 21–32.Google Scholar See also Kushner, David, “The Ottoman Governors of Jerusalem, 1864–1914,” Middle Eastern Studies, 23, 1 (07 1987): 274–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarThe other two provinces within the boundaries of Palestine were Nablus and Acre, both affiliated (from 1888) with the vilayet of BeyrutGoogle Scholar.
5 On the foreign interests in Palestine, see Carmel, Alex, “The Activities of the European Powers in Palestine, 1799–1914,” Asian and African Studies 19, 1 (03 1985): 43–91.Google Scholar See also Kushner, David, “The ‘Foreign Relations’ of the Governors of Jerusalem toward the End of the Ottoman Period,” in Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social and Economic Transformation, ed. Kushner, David (Jerusalem and Leiden, 1986), 309–19.Google Scholar
6 the British consul, for example, whom Ekrem Bey occasionally consulted, described Ekrem Bey as a friend of Britain. He saw him as a well-meaning man, but inexperienced and not always able to take responsibility. Blech, Consul to Ambassador O'Conor, 18 01 1908;Google ScholarBlech, Consul to Ambassador Lowther, 10 08 1908Google Scholar, Foreign Office (hereafter FO) series, 195/2287, Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), London.
7 See, for example, the governor's report on British efforts to purchase land in Wādī al-Ḥawārith: Ekrem Bey (hereafter omitted, unless document written by someone else) to the First Secretary of the Palace Secretariat (Mabeyn), draft (hereafter d), telegram (t), in cipher (c), 3 June 1323/16 06 1907, no. 20Google Scholar. All documents cited are to be found in the Ekrem Bey File in the Israeli State Archives, Prime Minister's Office, Jerusalem. Many of the documents are unnumbered (hereafter n.no.).
8 See, for example, Bey's, Ekrem long report on the interests of the powers in the Holy Places: “To the Grand Vezir,” d, 25 April 1323/8 05 1907.Google Scholar
9 “To the Palace/the Sublime Porte/Minister of Justice and Religions,” d, t, c, 25 June 1323/8 07 1907Google Scholar, n.no. Like many other conflicts, the one between the Copts and the Latins persists to this day.
10 “Submitted by Your Humble Servant,” 2 March 1324/15 03 1908, n.no.Google Scholar
11 To the First Secretary,” d, c, 15 April 1324/28 04 1908, no. 31.Google Scholar
12 “To the Kaymakam of Gaza,” d, c, 31 January 1323/13 02 1908, no. 19.Google Scholar
13 “To the Minister of Interior,” d, t, c, 30 March 1324/12 04 1908, no. 4.Google Scholar
14 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, 22 August 1323/4 09 1907, no. 57.Google Scholar
15 “To the First Secretary,” d, 14 November 1323/27 11 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
16 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, 25 April 1323/8 05 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
17 See Hopwood, Derek, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1914 (Oxford, 1969), 196–200.Google Scholar
18 “To izzet Pasha,” d, c, 15 October 1323/28 10 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
19 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, t, c, 13 May 1323/26 05 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
20 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, 19 December 1323/1 01 1908, n.no.Google Scholar
21 “Konsoloslar,” Ibret, 4 December 1288/16 12 1872.Google Scholar
22 The British consul in Jerusalem cites several occasions when Ekrem Bey sought his advice on matters pertaining to development. See, for example, Blech to Barclay, 10 04 1908;Google Scholar 20 May 1908, FO 195/2287, PRO.
23 “To Second Secretary Izzet Pasha,” d, 14 November 1323/27 11 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
24 On Ottoman policy toward Zionism and the various prohibitions on Jewish immigration and settlement in Palestine, see, in particular, Mandel, Neville J., The Arabs and Zionism before World War I (London, 1976);Google ScholarFriedman, Isaiah, Germany, Turkey and Zionism 1897–1918 (Oxford, 1977);Google ScholarKemal, M.Öke, Siyonizm ve Filistin Sorunu, 1880–1914 (Istanbul, 1982).Google Scholar
25 A copy of the order is to be found in Ekrem Bey's papers, no. 94.
26 Mandel, , The Arabs, 24.Google Scholar
27 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, n.d., no. 21.
28 For example, “To the Mutasarrif,” 26 June 1323/9 07 1907, no. 33.Google Scholar
29 “To the First Secretary,” d, t, c, 14 May 1324/27 06 1908, no. 244.Google Scholar
30 “Information Regarding Lands and Property Transferred to Jews, Citizens and Foreigners in Jerusalem and Surroundings,” copy, 1 July 1323/14 07 1907, no. 28Google Scholar
31 “To the First Secretary,” d, t, c, 3 June 1323/16 06 1907, no. 20.Google Scholar
32 Mandel, , The Arabs, 25.Google Scholar
33 “To the First Secretary,” d, t, c, 3 June 1323/18 06 1907, no. 20.Google Scholar
34 “To the Kaymakams of Nazareth and Gaza,” 20 May 1323/12 06 1907, no. 200.Google Scholar
35 Hashkafa (Jerusalem), 8, 5 Heshvan, Tarsah/13 10 1907.Google Scholar
36 “To the Second Secretary,” d, t, 10 April 1324/23 04 1908, n.no.Google Scholar
37 “To the Second Secretary,” d, 14 November 1323/27 11 1907.Google Scholar
38 “To the First Secretary,” d, t, 25 March 1324/7 04 1908, n.no.Google Scholar
39 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, n.d., no. 10.
40 Hashkafa, 95, 27 Elul, Tarsaz/6 09 1907.Google Scholar
41 “To the Second Secretary,” d, 14 November 1323/27 09 1907, n.no.Google Scholar
42 Hashkafa, 9, 10 Heshvan, Tarsah/18 10 1907.Google Scholar
43 “To the First Secretary,” d, 25 July 1323/7 08 1907, no. 6.Google Scholar
44 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, 14 March 1324/27 03 1908, no. 9.Google Scholar See also Gerber, , Ottoman Rule, 93.Google Scholar
45 “To the First Secretary,” d, n.d., no. 22.
46 “To Rifat Bey,” d, 24 July 1324/6 08 1908, no. 143.Google Scholar
47 “My Brother,” personal (hereafter p), from Refik, 22 May 1323/5 06 1907, no. 157Google Scholar; Blech to O'Conor, 13 06 1907, FO 195, 2225 PRO.Google Scholar
48 “To the Grand Vezir,” 22 August 1323/4 09 1907, no. 57;Google Scholar“To Izzet Pasha,” d, t, c, 22 October 1323/4 11 1907, nos. 2, 6;Google Scholar“To the First Secretary,” d, t, c, 13 October 1323/26 10 1907, no. 155.Google Scholar
49 “To the Mutasarrif, 14 July 1323/27 07 1907, no. 146.Google Scholar
50 “To Izzet Pasha,” d, t, c, 14 October 1323/27 10 1907, no. 135.Google Scholar
51 [To the Sultan], d, 16 August 1323/29 08 1907, no. 148.Google Scholar
52 “To My Eyes Necib,” p, 20 October 1323/2 11 1907, no. 164.Google Scholar This is the only personal letter written by Ekrem Bey that is found in the collection, and it may never have been sent.
53 “My Brother,” p, from Refik, 22 May 1323/5 06 1907, no. 157.Google Scholar
54 “A Brotherly and Humble Word,” p, 25 August 1323/7 09 1907, no. 169.Google Scholar
55 “To My Brother Ekrem Bey,” from Hilmi?, p, n.d., no. 180.
56 “My Eyes, My Brother,” from Aleko, p, 13 October 1323/26 10 1907, no. 134.Google Scholar
57 “To My Dear and Respected Brother,” from Hilmi, p, 11 October 1323/24 10 1907, no. 185.Google Scholar
58 “My Dear Ekrem,” from Rifat, p, n.d., no. 183.
59 [To the Grand Vezir], n.d., n.no.
60 “To Rifat Bey” d, t, 24 July 1324/6 08 1908, no. 143.Google Scholar
61 Blech to Lowther, 10 08 1908, FO 195/2287, PRO.Google Scholar
62 “Nutuk,” n.d., n.no.
63 “To the Minister of Interior,” d, t, c, n.d., no. 11.
64 [To Brother-in-Law], d, t, 28 July 1324/10 08 1908, no. 129.Google Scholar
65 There is an abundance of work on the early beginnings of Arab nationalism, the general theme being that (aside from some isolated earlier expressions) it was only relatively late during the Young Turk period that Arabs began showing a preference for full independence, and even then the bulk of the population remained loyal to the Ottoman Sultanate-Caliphate. See, for example, Dawn, C. Ernest, From Ottomanism to Arabism (Urbana, Chicago, and London, 1973).Google Scholar On the emergence of Arab nationalism in Palestine, see Porath, Yehoshua, The Emergence of the Palestinian National Movement, 1918–1929 (Jerusalem, 1973).Google Scholar
66 “To the Minister of Interior,” d, t, c n.d., no. 3. It is interesting to note that such pleas for the appointment of Turks in lieu of Arabs had been made even before, during the Hamidian period, showing doubts as to the reliability of Arab officials who possessed too many connections with the population. See, for example, Bey's, Ekrem recommendation to the Sheyh ül-Islam to appoint a Turkish naib to Jerusalem: “To Sheyh ül-Islam,” d, t, c, 7 July 1323/20 07 1907, no. 97.Google Scholar
67 Ekrem, , Unveiled, 112.Google Scholar
68 “My Brother Ekrem Bey,” p, n.d., no. 180.
69 “To the Grand Vezir,” d, t, c, 23 July 1324/5 08 1908, no. 8.Google Scholar
