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Lost in digital translation? The humanitarian principles in the digital age
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 March 2024
Abstract
The digital transformation creates significant opportunities and risks for humanitarian action. Current approaches to humanitarian innovation-related issues are too often driven by considerations of competition and relevance, relegating the fundamental humanitarian principles of humanity, impartiality, neutrality and independence to afterthoughts. By reasserting the place and role of these principles in humanitarian decision-making processes, this article argues that it is possible to better understand the political and ethical dimensions of the digital transformation, reverse counterproductive practices, and ultimately better mitigate the negative impact that technologies can have on the safety and dignity of people affected by humanitarian crises, and on principled humanitarian action.
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- Research Article
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of ICRC
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The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.
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44 Access Now, above note 20.
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47 K. B. Sandvik et al., above note 14, p. 232.
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50 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 330; Access Now, above note 20, pp. 2–3.
51 K. B. Sandvik, above note 29, p. 2.
52 Access Now, above note 20, p. 2.
53 K. B. Sandvik et al., above note 14, p. 231.
54 Ibid.; M. Madianou, above note 19, p. 5; Access Now, above note 20, p. 5.
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56 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 321.
57 “Techno-solutionism” is “the idea that given the right code, algorithms and robots, technology can solve all of mankind's problems, effectively making life ‘frictionless’ and trouble-free.” See Evgeny Morozov, To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism, Public Affairs, New York, 2014.
58 “Techno-utopianism” is “a naïve belief in the emancipatory nature of online communication, along with a refusal to acknowledge any negative impact of the Internet on society”: K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 11.
59 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 328.
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61 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 10.
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63 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 13; Access Now, above note 20, p. 54.
64 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 5.
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66 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 12.
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68 See, generally, K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8.
69 Ibid., p. 322.
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71 Access Now, above note 20, p. 5.
72 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 340.
73 Ibid., p. 322.
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75 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 20; K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 42.
76 Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: Commentary, IFRC, 1979, p. 14, available at: https://volunteeringredcross.org/en/recurso/the-fundamental-principles-of-the-red-cross-commentary-by-jean-pictet/. The seven Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross consist of the four humanitarian principles discussed in this article along with the three additional principles of voluntary service, unity and universality.
77 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 323.
78 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 10.
79 Ibid.
80 Ibid.
81 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 17.
82 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 10.
83 R. Dette, above note 23, pp. 13–14.
84 See the below section on “Digital Dependencies and the ‘Splinternet’”.
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87 IFRC and The Engine Room, above note 85.
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94 Ibid., p. 1353.
95 M. Madianou, above note 19, p. 2.
96 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 18.
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99 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 55.
100 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 13.
101 J. Lerman, above note 11, p. 56.
102 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 22.
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115 Access Now, above note 20, pp. 57–58.
116 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 329; K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, pp. 10, 26; Access Now, above note 20, p. 54.
117 See the above section on “‘Techno-Solutionism’ and Utilitarian Approaches”.
118 Cate, Fred and Mayer-Schonberger, Viktor, “Notice and Consent in a World of Big Data”, International Data Privacy Law, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2013CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: http://idpl.oxfordjournals.org/content/3/2/67.abstract; K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 21.
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120 Sabrina Rau, “Those Pop-Up ‘I Agree’ Boxes Aren't Just Annoying – They're Potentially Dangerous”, The Conversation, 7 December 2018, available at: https://theconversation.com/those-pop-up-i-agree-boxes-arent-just-annoying-theyre-potentially-dangerous-106898.
121 Adam J. Andreotta, Nin Kirkham and Marco Rizzi, “AI, Big Data, and the Future of Consent”, AI and Society, Vol. 37, 2022, available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00146-021-01262-5.
122 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, pp. 3–4, 21.
123 Ibid., p. 9.
124 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 328; Access Now, above note 20, p. 16.
125 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 18.
126 Massimo Marelli, “Hacking Humanitarians: Defining the Cyber Perimeter and Developing a Cyber Security Strategy for International Humanitarian Organizations in Digital Transformation”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 102, No. 913, 2020, available at: https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/hacking-humanitarians-cyber-security-strategy-international-humanitarian-organizations-913; Access Now, above note 20, p. 24.
127 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, pp. 38–55.
128 Massimo Marelli, “The SolarWinds Hack: Lessons for International Humanitarian Organizations”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 104, No. 919, 2022, available at: https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/the-solarwinds-hack-lessons-for-international-humanitarian-organizations-919.
129 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, pp. 38–55.
130 Stéphane Duguin, “Cyberattacks: A Real Threat to NGOs and Nonprofits”, news release, Cyber Peace Institute, 22 February 2022, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/cyberattacks-real-threat-ngos-and-nonprofits.
131 WEF, Cybersecurity Futures 2030: New Foundations, white paper, December 2023, p. 7, available at: www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Cybersecurity_Futures_2030_New_Foundations_2023.pdf; Robert Flummerfelt and Nick Turse, “Online Atrocity Database Exposed Thousands of Vulnerable People in Congo”, The Intercept, 17 November 2023, available at: https://theintercept.com/2023/11/17/congo-hrw-nyu-security-data/; K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 14.
132 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 41.
133 R. Flummerfelt and N. Turse, above note 131, p. 41.
134 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 15.
135 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 21.
136 See, generally, N. Raymond and B. Card, above note 24.
137 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 24.
138 Ibid., p. 28.
139 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative and Advanced Training Program in Humanitarian Action, Protecting Humanitarian Action: Key Challenges and Lessons from the Field, October 2016, available at: https://hhi.harvard.edu/publications/protecting-humanitarian-action-key-challenges-and-lessons-field.
140 Hugo Slim, “What's Wrong with Impartiality?”, The New Humanitarian, 12 July 2021, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2021/7/12/three-challenges-for-humanitarian-impartiality.
141 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 41.
142 J. Lerman, above note 11, p. 57.
143 Keith Foote, “A Brief History of Big Data”, Dataversity, 14 December 2017, available at: www.dataversity.net/brief-history-big-data/.
144 Chris Wiggins and Matthew L. Jones, How Data Happened: A History of Data from the Age of Reason to the Age of Algorithms, W. W. Norton, New York, 2023, available at: https://wwnorton.com/books/how-data-happened.
145 Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson, “Big Data: The Management Revolution”, Harvard Business Review, October 2012, available at: https://hbr.org/2012/10/big-data-the-management-revolution; Access Now, above note 20, p. 49.
146 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 27.
147 Global Pulse, Big Data for Development and Humanitarian Action: Towards Responsible Governance, Global Pulse Privacy Advisory Group Meetings 2015–2016, 2016, available at: www.slideshare.net/unglobalpulse/big-data-for-development-and-humanitarian-action-towards-responsible-governance-report.
148 Larissa Fast, Data Sharing between Humanitarian Organisations and Donors: Toward Understanding and Articulating Responsible Practice, Norwegian Center for Humanitarian Studies, April 2022, available at: www.humanitarianstudies.no/resource/data-sharing-between-humanitarian-organisations-and-donors/; Marcella Vigneri, “Generating and Using Evidence during a Global Crisis: What Can We Learn from the Humanitarian Sector?”, Center of Excellence for Development Impact and Learning, March 2021, available at: https://cedilprogramme.org/blog/generating-and-using-evidence-during-a-global-crisis-what-can-we-learn-from-the-humanitarian-sector/.
149 “The World's Most Valuable Resource is No Longer Oil, but Data”, The Economist, 20 May 2017, available at: www.economist.com/leaders/2017/05/06/the-worlds-most-valuable-resource-is-no-longer-oil-but-data.
150 Katherine Garett-Cox and Helen Alderson Reat Noch, “How Improved Data Could Boost Humanitarian Investment”, WEF, 2 March 2021, available at: www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/03/improved-data-boost-humanitarian-investment/.
151 Adama Schlosser, “You May Have Heard Data Is the New Oil. It's Not”, WEF, 10 January 2018, available at: www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/01/data-is-not-the-new-oil/; Antonio Garcia Martinez, “No, Data Is Not the New Oil”, Wired, 26 February 2019, available at: www.wired.com/story/no-data-is-not-the-new-oil/.
152 Tom Kackson and Ian Hodgkinson, “‘Dark Data’ Is Killing the Planet – We Need Digital Decarbonisation”, The Conversation, 29 September 2022, available at: https://theconversation.com/dark-data-is-killing-the-planet-we-need-digital-decarbonisation-190423.
153 Sean Martin McDonald, Ebola: A Big Data Disaster, CIS Papers 2016.01, March 2016, available at: https://cis-india.org/papers/ebola-a-big-data-disaster.
154 Ibid.
155 Kavlev Leeratu, “Why Big Data Missed the Early Warning Signs of Ebola”, Foreign Policy, 26 September 2014, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/09/26/why-big-data-missed-the-early-warning-signs-of-ebola/.
156 S. M. McDonald, above note 153, pp. 2–3.
157 Ibid.
158 Georgina Sturge, Bad Data: How Governments, Politicians and the Rest of Us Get Misled by Numbers, Little Brown, London, 2022.
159 J. Lerman, above note 11, p. 60.
160 David Danks and John London, “Algorithmic Bias in Autonomous Systems”, Proceedings of the 26th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 2017, available at: www.cmu.edu/dietrich/philosophy/docs/london/IJCAI17-AlgorithmicBias-Distrib.pdf.
161 Emily Bender, Timnit Gebru, Angelina McMillan-Major and Margaret Mitchell, “On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?”, FAccT ’21: Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, March 2021, available at: https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445922.
162 Ferguson, Andrew Guthrie, The Rise of Big Data Policing: Surveillance, Race, and the Future of Law Enforcement, New York University Press, New York, 2017CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
163 Caroline Criado-Perez, Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men, Chatto and Windus, London, 2019.
164 Leonardo Nicoletti and Nina Bass, “Humans are Biased, Generative AI is Even Worse”, Bloomberg, November 2023, available at: www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2023-generative-ai-bias/.
165 Pasquale, Frank, The Black Box Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2015CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
166 Ibid., pp. 140–189.
167 Chloe Xiang, “Scientists Increasingly Can't Explain How AI Works”, Vice, 1 November 2022, available at: www.vice.com/en/article/y3pezm/scientists-increasingly-cant-explain-how-ai-works.
168 Giulio Coppi, Rebeca Moreno Jimenez and Sofia Kyriazi, “Explicability of Humanitarian AI: A Matter of Principles”, Journal of International Humanitarian Action, Vol. 6, No. 19, 2021, available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-021-00096-6.
169 Ibid.
170 WEF, above note 131, p. 9.
171 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), “Internet Surge Slows, Leaving 2.7 Billion People Offline in 2022”, news release, 16 September 2022, available at: www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/Pages/PR-2022-09-16-Internet-surge-slows.aspx.
172 OCHA, “Global Humanitarian Overview 2022”, 2022, available at: https://2022.gho.unocha.org/.
173 Ibid.
174 World Bank, “Closing the Digital Gender Gap: Why Now Should Have Been Yesterday”, 9 June 2020, available at: www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/06/09/closing-the-digital-gender-gap-why-now-should-have-been-yesterday.
175 Andrew Perrin and Sarah Atske, “How Can We Ensure that More People with Disabilities Have Access to Digital Devices?”, WEF, 16 September 2021, available at: www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/09/disability-barrier-to-digital-device-ownership/.
176 Thomas McElroy, “Addressing the Digital Divide in Education: Technology and Internet Access for Students in Underserved Communities”, Forbes, 3 December 2021, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2021/12/03/addressing-the-digital-divide-in-education-technology-and-internet-access-for-students-in-underserved-communities/.
177 ITU, above note 171.
178 Ibid.
179 J. Lerman, above note 11, p. 55.
180 Ibid., p. 57.
181 Ibid., p. 59.
182 ITU, “New UN Targets Chart Path to Universal Meaningful Connectivity”, 19 April 2022, available at: https://www.itu.int/hub/2022/04/new-un-targets-chart-path-to-universal-meaningful-connectivity/.
183 Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, “It May be Time to Reinforce Universal Access to the Internet as a Human Right, Not Just a Privilege, High Commissioner Tells Human Rights Council”, news release, 10 March 2023, available at: www.ohchr.org/en/news/2023/03/it-may-be-time-reinforce-universal-access-internet-human-right-not-just-privilege-high.
184 Laura O'Brien, Peter Micek, Carolina Goncalves Berenger and Eric Null, “More than 3.5 Billion Left in the Dark: Why We're Still Fighting to Reach U.N. Targets for Internet Access”, Access Now, 5 November 2020, available at: www.accessnow.org/internet-access/; Anne-Marie Grey, “The Case for Connectivity, the New Human Right”, UN Chronicle, 10 December 2020, available at: www.un.org/en/un-chronicle/case-connectivity-new-human-right.
185 KeepItOn Coalition, “Preserving Freedom in Crisis: Ethiopia's Internet Shutdowns Must Not Become the Norm”, September 2023, available at: www.accessnow.org/press-release/open-statement-internet-shutdown-amhara/.
186 Maeve Shearlow, “Mark Zuckerberg Says Connectivity Is a Basic Human Right – Do You Agree?”, The Guardian, 3 January 2014, available at: www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2014/jan/03/mark-zuckerberg-connectivity-basic-human-right.
187 Toussaint Nothias, “Access Granted: Facebook's Free Basics in Africa”, Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 42, No. 3, 2020, available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719890530; Emma Roth, “Facebook's Plan to Offer Free Internet in Developing Countries Ended Up Costing Users, WSJ Reports”, The Verge, 25 January 2022, available at: www.theverge.com/2022/1/25/22900924/facebooks-free-internet-less-developed-costing-users-wsj.
188 Emily Rose and Baranjot Kaur, “Musk Says Starlink Will Provide Gaza Connectivity for Aid Groups”, Reuters, 28 October 2023, available at: www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/musk-says-starlink-provide-connectivity-gaza-through-aid-organizations-2023-10-28/.
189 Rakesh Barania and Mark Silverman, “Protective by Design: Safely Delivering Connectivity as Aid”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 8 July 2021, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2021/07/08/protective-by-design-connectivity-as-aid/; Access Now, above note 20, p. 19.
190 Dariusz Kloza, “The Right Not to Use the Internet”, Computer Law and Security Review, Vol. 52, April 2024, available at: www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0267364923001176.
191 Lee Rainie and Jana Anderson, “More People Will Be Connected and More Will Withdraw or Refuse to Participate”, Pew Research Center, 6 June 2017, available at: www.pewresearch.org/internet/2017/06/06/theme-4-more-people-will-be-connected-and-more-will-withdraw-or-refuse-to-participate/
192 M. Duffield, above note 114, p. 148.
193 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 34.
194 Ibid.
195 Fiona Terry, “Taking Action, Not Sides: The Benefits of Humanitarian Neutrality in War”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 21 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2022/06/21/taking-action-not-sides-humanitarian-neutrality/.
196 Hugo Slim, “Solidarity, Not Neutrality, Will Characterize Western Aid to Ukraine”, Ethics and International Affairs Online, 3 October 2022, available at: www.ethicsandinternationalaffairs.org/online-exclusives/solidarity-not-neutrality-will-characterize-western-aid-to-ukraine; Hugo Slim, “You Don't Have to Be Neutral to Be a Good Humanitarian”, The New Humanitarian, 27 August 2020, available at: www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2020/08/27/humanitarian-principles-neutrality.
197 Kellenberger, Jacob, “Speaking Out or Remaining Silent in Humanitarian Work”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 86, No. 855, 2004Google Scholar, available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/irrc_855_kellenberger.pdf; K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 14.
198 J. Pictet, above note 76, p. 40.
199 Farrell, Henry and Newman, Abraham L., “Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion”, International Security, Vol. 44, No. 1, 2019CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article/44/1/42/12237/Weaponized-Interdependence-How-Global-Economic.
200 Richard Gowan, “Trends in Armed Conflicts”, SIPRI Yearbook 2023, SIPRI, 2023, available at: www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023/02.
201 ICRC, “Misinformation, Disinformation and Hate Speech – Questions and Answers”, 17 February 2023, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/general-misinformation-disinformation-and-hate-speech-questions-and-answers.
202 I. Vonèche Cardia et al., above note 27.
203 E. Schmidt, above note 1.
204 Jane Nakano, “The Geopolitics of Critical Minerals Supply Chains”, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 11 March 2021, available at: www.csis.org/analysis/geopolitics-critical-minerals-supply-chains.
205 “Huawei Accused of Building Secret Microchip Factories to Beat US Sanctions”, The Guardian, 23 August 2023, available at: www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/aug/23/huawei-accused-building-secret-microchip-semiconductor-factories-us-sanctions.
206 Alex Botting, “Embracing Ad Hoc International Coalitions May Be the Best Approach for the Biden Administration, But It's Not Without Challenges”, Wilson Center, 2 June 2023, available at: www.wilsoncenter.org/article/embracing-ad-hoc-international-coalitions-may-be-best-approach-biden-administration-its-not.
207 See, generally, Access Now, above note 20; M. Marelli, above note 128.
208 Agathe Desmarais, “How the U.S.–Chinese Technology War Is Changing the World”, Foreign Policy, November 2022, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/19/demarais-backfire-sanctions-us-china-technology-war-semiconductors-export-controls-biden/.
209 Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, “Humanitarian Exceptions: A Turning Point in UN Sanctions”, Chatham House, December 2022, available at: www.chathamhouse.org/2022/12/humanitarian-exceptions-turning-point-un-sanctions.
210 Slaughter, Anne-Marie, The Chessboard and the Web: Strategies of Connection in a Networked World, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2017Google Scholar.
211 K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 324; M. Duffield, above note 114, pp. 153, 156.
212 John Naughton, “The Evolution of the Internet: From Military Experiment to General Purpose Technology”, Journal of Cyber Policy, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016, available at: www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23738871.2016.1157619.
213 ARPA has since been renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). See the DARPA website, available at: www.darpa.mil/.
214 Rashida Beal, “Complete History of Drones: From 1849 to 2023”, DroneSourced, 3 September 2023, available at: https://dronesourced.com/guides/history-of-drones/.
215 Oppy Graham and David Dowe, “The Turing Test”, in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive, Winter 2021 Edition, 2021, available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/turing-test/.
216 Russell Brandom, “Most US Government Agencies Are Using Facial Recognition”, The Verge, 25 August 201, available at: www.theverge.com/2021/8/25/22641216/facial-recognition-gao-report-agency-dhs-cbp-fbi.
217 SIPRI, “World Military Expenditure Passes $2 Trillion for First Time”, news release, 25 April 202, available at: www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2022/world-military-expenditure-passes-2-trillion-first-time.
218 Mazzucato, Mariana, The Entrepreneurial State, Anthem Press, London, 2013Google Scholar.
219 Ibid.
220 Tech Transparency Project, “Google's US Revolving Door”, 26 April 2016, available at: www.techtransparencyproject.org/articles/googles-revolving-door-us; Jamie Doward, “Google: New Concerns Raised about Political Influence by Senior ‘Revolving Door’ Jobs”, The Guardian, 4 June 2016, available at: www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jun/04/google-influence-hiring-government-officials.
221 Kubo Mačák and Mauro Vignati, “Civilianization of Digital Operations: A Risky Trend”, Lawfare, 5 April 2023, available at: www.lawfaremedia.org/article/civilianization-digital-operations-risky-trend. See also, generally, Access Now, above note 20.
222 Kurt Vinion, “How Elon Musk's Starlink Became Invaluable to Ukraine's War Effort”, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 20 October 2022, available at: www.rferl.org/a/starlink-elon-musk-ukraine-war-russia-funding/32091045.html; Access Now, above note 20, pp. 23–25.
223 Brad Smith, “Defending Ukraine: Early Lessons from the Cyber War”, Microsoft Blog, 22 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2022/06/22/defending-ukraine-early-lessons-from-the-cyber-war/.
224 Thomas Brewster, “Israel Has Asked Meta and TikTok to Remove 8,000 Posts Related to Hamas War”, Forbes, 14 November 2023, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/thomasbrewster/2023/11/13/meta-and-tiktok-told-to-remove-8000-pro-hamas-posts-by-israel/.
225 Jonathan Horowitz, “When Might Digital Tech Companies Become Targetable in War?”, Tech Policy Press, 13 October 2023, available at: www.techpolicy.press/when-might-digital-tech-companies-become-targetable-in-war/.
226 James Ball, The System: Who Owns the Internet, and How It Owns Us, Bloomsbury, London, 2020, pp. 39–59.
227 David E. Sanger, Julian E. Barnes and Kate Conger, “As Tanks Rolled Into Ukraine, So Did Malware. Then Microsoft Entered the War”, New York Times, 28 February 2022, available at: www.nytimes.com/2022/02/28/us/politics/ukraine-russia-microsoft.html; Brad Smith, “Extending Our Vital Technology Support for Ukraine”, Microsoft Blog, 3 November 2022, available at: https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2022/11/03/our-tech-support-ukraine/.
228 Access Now, above note 20, pp. 2–3.
229 Mung Chiang, “The Era of ‘Tech Diplomacy’ Is Here”, Forbes, 7 July 2021, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/mungchiang/2021/07/07/the-era-of-tech-diplomacy-is-here/.
230 Emily Birnbaum, “Tech Spent Big on Lobbying Last Year”, Politico, 24 January 2022, available at: www.politico.com/newsletters/morning-tech/2022/01/24/tech-spent-big-on-lobbying-last-year-00001144.
231 M. Madianou, above note 19, p. 5.
232 Andrew Coates, “Elon Musk Releases Details of Plan to Colonise Mars – Here's What a Planetary Expert Thinks”, The Conversation, 21 June 2017, available at: https://theconversation.com/elon-musk-releases-details-of-plan-to-colonise-mars-heres-what-a-planetary-expert-thinks-79733.
233 Tad Friend, “Sam Altman's Manifest Destiny”, The New Yorker, 3 October 2016, available at: www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/10/sam-altmans-manifest-destiny.
234 Rebecca Ackerman, “Inside Effective Altruism, Where the Far Future Counts a Lot More than the Present”, MIT Technology Review, 17 October 2022, available at: https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/10/17/1060967/effective-altruism-growth/.
235 John Naughton, “Longtermism: How Good Intentions and the Rich Created a Dangerous Creed”, The Guardian, 4 December 2022, available at: www.theguardian.com/technology/commentisfree/2022/dec/04/longtermism-rich-effective-altruism-tech-dangerous.
236 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, p. 14.
237 Timnit Gebru, “Effective Altruism Is Pushing a Dangerous Brand of ‘AI Safety’”, Wired, 30 November 2022, available at: www.wired.com/story/effective-altruism-artificial-intelligence-sam-bankman-fried/.
238 Eileeen Guo and Adi Reinaldi, “Deception, Exploited Workers, and Cash Handouts: How Worldcoin Recruited Its First Half a Million Test Users”, MIT Technology Review, 6 April 2022, available at: www.technologyreview.com/2022/04/06/1048981/worldcoin-cryptocurrency-biometrics-web3/.
239 Dan Milmo, “Kenya Halts Worldcoin Data Collection over Privacy and Security Concerns”, The Guardian, 3August 2023, available at: www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/aug/03/kenya-halts-worldcoin-data-collection-over-privacy-and-security-concerns.
240 E. Guo and A. Reinaldi, above note 238.
241 Access Now, above note 20, pp. 47–48.
242 Ibid., pp. 2–3.
243 Martin, Aaron, “Aidwashing Surveillance: Critiquing the Corporate Exploitation of Humanitarian Crises”, Surveillance and Society, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2023CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/download/16266/10615/40977.
244 N. Raymond and B. Card, above note 24.
245 I. Vonèche Cardia et al., above note 27; R. Dette, above note 23, p. 22.
246 Saman Rejali, “Race, Equity, and Neo-Colonial Legacies: Identifying Paths Forward for Principled Humanitarian Action”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 16 July 2020, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2020/07/16/race-equity-neo-colonial-legacies-humanitarian/.
247 Access Now, above note 20, p. 2.
248 M. Madianou, above note 19; WEF, above note 131, p. 8.
249 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36.
250 M. Madianou, above note 19; K. B. Sandvik, K. L. Jacobsen and S. M. McDonald, above note 8, p. 326.
251 K. B. Sandvik, above note 36, pp. 20–37.
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254 Access Now, above note 20, p. 49.
255 Responsible Data et al., “Open Letter to WFP re: Palantir Agreement”, 8 February 2019, available at: https://responsibledata.io/2019/02/08/open-letter-to-wfp-re-palantir-agreement/; Access Now, above note 20, pp. 45–46.
256 M. Madianou, above note 19, p. 2.
257 M. Latonero, above note 18.
258 Glen Greenwald, “How the U.S. Spies on Medical Nonprofits and Health Defenses Worldwide”, The Intercept, 10 August 2016, available at: https://theintercept.com/2016/08/10/how-the-u-s-spies-on-medical-nonprofits-and-health-defenses-worldwide/; K. B. Sandvik et al., above note 14, p. 17.
259 Belkis Wille, “The Data of the Most Vulnerable People Is the Least Protected”, Human Rights Watch, July 2023, available at: www.hrw.org/news/2023/07/11/data-most-vulnerable-people-least-protected.
260 Aziz El Yaakoubi and Lisa Barrington, “Yemen's Houthis and WFP Dispute Aid Control as Millions Starve”, Reuters, 4 June 2019, available at: www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security-wfp-idUSKCN1T51YO/.
261 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 21; Access Now, above note 20, p. 31.
262 K. B. Sandvik et al., above note 14, p. 238; Access Now, above note 20, pp. 31, 37.
263 Access Now, above note 20, p. 31.
264 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 21; WEF, “Digital Dependencies and Cyber Vulnerabilities”, in Global Risks Report 2022, 11 January 2022, available at: www.weforum.org/publications/global-risks-report-2022/in-full/chapter-3-digital-dependencies-and-cyber-vulnerabilities/.
265 Access Now, above note 20, p. 37.
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267 Zach Rosson, Felicia Anthonio and Carolyn Tackett, Weapons of Control, Shields of Impunity: Internet Shutdowns in 2022, Access Now, 28 February 2023, available at: www.accessnow.org/internet-shutdowns-2022/.
268 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 23.
269 WEF, above note 131, p. 8.
270 Benjamin Cedric Larsen, “The Geopolitics of AI and the Rise of Digital Sovereignty”, Brookings Institution, 8 January 2022, available at: www.brookings.edu/articles/the-geopolitics-of-ai-and-the-rise-of-digital-sovereignty/; Aaron Martin et al., “Digitisation and Sovereignty in Humanitarian Space: Technologies, Territories and Tensions”, Geopolitics, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2023, available at: www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14650045.2022.2047468.
271 Charles Dunst, “‘How China Is Winning the Battle for Digital Sovereignty’: A Review”, Council on Foreign Relations, 16 November 2022, available at: www.cfr.org/blog/how-china-winning-battle-digital-sovereignty-review.
272 Agathe Desmarais, “How the U.S.-Chinese Technology War Is Changing the World”, Foreign Policy, 19 November 2022, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/19/demarais-backfire-sanctions-us-china-technology-war-semiconductors-export-controls-biden/.
273 Justin Hendrix, “Digital Empires: A Conversation with Anu Bradford”, Tech Policy Press, 8 October 2023, available at: www.techpolicy.press/digital-empires-a-conversation-with-anu-bradford/.
274 Internet Society, “How to Protect the Internet from Becoming the Splinternet”, 12 May 2022, available at: www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2022/how-to-protect-the-internet-from-becoming-the-splinternet/.
275 Access Now, above note 20, pp. 49–50.
276 WEF, above note 131, p. 8.
277 M. Latonero and Z. Gold, above note 13, p. 6.
278 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, pp. 15–16.
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282 I. Vonèche Cardia et al., above note 27; M. Latonero and Z. Gold, above note 13, p. 2.
283 K. B. Sandvik and N. Raymond, above note 10, p. 10.
284 WEF, above note 131, pp. 9, 12.
285 Ibid.
286 R. Dette, above note 23, p. 22.
287 Massimo Marelli, “Opening an ICRC Delegation for Cyberspace”, EJIL: Talk!, 9 February 2023, available at: www.ejiltalk.org/opening-an-icrc-delegation-for-cyberspace/; WEF, above note 131, p. 12.
288 Philippe Stoll, “The Brave New World of ‘Tech-plomacy’”, Red Cross Red Crescent Magazine, 24 July 2023, available at: www.rcrcmagazine.org/2023/07/podcast-the-brave-new-world-of-tech-plomacy/.