No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Where Diasporas Met: Hunanese, Cantonese, and the State in Late-Qing Guangxi
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 December 2020
Abstract
Drawing on physical and textual records of Hunanese and Cantonese active in Guangxi, as well as state archival sources, this article traces the expansion of these two diasporic cohorts in Guangxi from the early nineteenth century, through the mid-century wars, and into the postwar era, when they reintegrated this southwestern frontier province into the late-Qing empire.
- Type
- Late Imperial China
- Information
- Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 , Volume 5 , Special Issue 2: The State and Migration in Chinese History , July 2021 , pp. 263 - 284
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press
Footnotes
I wish to thank Anthony Barbieri, Micah Muscolino, Jonathan Schlesinger, and other participants of the “State and Migration in Chinese History” conference for their comments on my conference paper, which helped to steer me toward writing this article. I also thank Anthony and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback on this article.
References
1 Enshou, Yang, Tanyuan riji 坦園日記 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1983), 116–84Google Scholar.
2 Halsey, Stephen R., Quest for Power: European Imperialism and the Making of Chinese Statecraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Beiliu xian zhi 北流縣志 (1880), 3:8b, 7:18a–b; Takayanagi Shōichirō 高柳松一郎, Zhongguo guanshui zhidu lun 中國關税制度論, in Jindai Zhongguo shiliao congkan, vol. 735 (Taipei: Wenhai, 1972), 44.
3 Consider the contrasting peripheralization of an interior region—the Yellow River–Grand Canal confluence—and integration of a peripheral region—Xinjiang—in the postwar era. Pomeranz, Kenneth, The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853–1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 122CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Millward, James A., Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 132–33Google Scholar.
4 On interprovincial integration, see Kaske, Elisabeth, “Fund-Raising Wars: Office Selling and Interprovincial Finance in Nineteenth-Century China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 71.1 (2011), 73, 77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 Goodman, Bryna, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853–1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 59–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wooldridge, Chuck, City of Virtues: Nanjing in an Age of Utopian Visions (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015), 120Google Scholar.
6 Fitzgerald, John, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2007), chap. 3Google Scholar; Schluessel, Eric, Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2020), chap. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 Marks, Robert B., Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt: Environment and Economy in Late Imperial South China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 263–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zhong Wendian 钟文典, ed., Guangxi jindai xuzhen yanjiu 广西近代圩镇研究 (Guilin: Guangxi shifan daxue, 1998), 68, 371–72.
8 CHGIS, Version: 6. (c) Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies of Harvard University and the Center for Historical Geographical Studies at Fudan University, 2016.
9 On trade diasporas, see Curtin, Philip D., Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 2–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
10 Perdue, Peter C., Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500–1850 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 93–94, 99–100, 112CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zhang, Meng, “Financing Market-Oriented Reforestation: Securitization of Timberlands and Shareholding Practices in Southwest China, 1750–1900,” Late Imperial China 39.2 (2017), 112, 125Google Scholar.
11 Zhong, Guangxi jindai xuzhen yanjiu, 163, 225–26; “Shuyuan beiji” 書院碑記 (1823), North Gate, Danzhou, Sanjiang, Guangxi.
12 Perdue, Exhausting the Earth, 25; Chen Chunsheng 陈春声, Shichang jizhi yu shehui bianqian: 18 shiji Guangdong mijia fenxi 市场机制与社会变迁：18 世纪广东米价分析 (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin, 2010), 32.
13 [Hunan Xupu] Xiangshi zupu 向氏族譜 (1877), 附恭廷公軼事 in biographies, and 584a–586a.
14 Guanshi zupu 關氏族譜 (1889), in Beijing tushuguan cang jiapu congkan, Min Yue (qiaoxiang) juan (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan, 2000), vol. 27–28, 455, 1211–12, 1441.
15 “Chongxiu Wushenggong miaoyu beiji” 重修五聖宮廟宇碑記 (1794), Wushenggong, Pumiao, Guangxi.
16 Zhongguo renmin daxue Qingshi yanjiusuo and Zhongguo diyi lishi dang'anguan, ed., Tiandihui 天地會 (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin, 1988), vol. 7, 368–69. For a similar example, in Yangshuo in 1821, 399–400.
17 “Chongjian Yuedong huiguan beiji” 重建粵東會館碑記 (1788), Yuedong huiguan, Longxu, Wuzhou, Guangxi; Mai Sijie 麥思杰, “Cong liangtong ‘Chongjian Yuedong huiguan timing beiji’ kan Qingdai Rongxu de shangye” 從兩通《重建粵東會館題名碑記》看清代戎墟的商業, South China Research Resource Station Newsletter 38 (January 2005): 1–19.
18 “Chongxiu huiguan bing xitai beiji” 重修會館並戲臺碑記 (1815), Yuedong huiguan, Pingle, Guangxi.
19 Platt, Stephen R., Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 38Google Scholar.
20 “Lianxi hui beiji” 濓溪會碑記 (1835), Qixing gongyuan, Guilin, Guangxi; Luchuan xian zhi 陸川縣志 (1924), 7:16a; Shanhua xian zhi 善化縣志 (1877), 22:2a; Pingjiang xian zhi 平江縣志 (1874), 43:17a; Wugang zhou zhi 武岡州志 (1873), 43:3b; Baling xian zhi 巴陵縣志 (1872), 16:37b; Changsha xian zhi 長沙縣志 (1871), 22:28b, 65b; Qingdai jinshen lu jicheng 清代缙绅录集成, edited by Institute for History of Science and Technology and Ancient Texts, Qinghua University Library (Zhengzhou: Daxiang, 2008), hereafter QDJSLJC, vol. 10, 399.
21 I exclude sixteen officials whose names are illegible or not given, as well as subordinate officials for independent departments and native chieftaincies.
22 QDJSLJC, vol. 19, 345–51; Cole, James H., Shaohsing: Competition and Cooperation in Nineteenth-Century China (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986), 104; 118–29Google Scholar.
23 Su Fengwen 蘇鳳文, Guangxi zhaozhong lu 廣西昭忠錄 (1889), 1:13a.
24 Zuo Shiju 左世榘.
25 QDJSLJC, vol. 16, 185, vol. 19, 348; Hexian zhi 賀縣志 (1934), 3:20b–21a.
26 Yu-wen, Jen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 64, 76–77Google Scholar.
27 Frederic Wakeman, Jr., Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), 139–48.
28 Pingle xian zhi 平樂縣志 (1884) 6:33a–b; Qin Baoqi 秦宝琦, Zhongguo dixia shehui 中国地下社会, vol. 2, Wan Qing mimi shehui 晚清秘密社会 (Beijing: Xueyuan, 2009), 182–83.
29 E.g., Guixian zhi 貴縣志 (1894), 6:7b–8a, 8:22b.
30 Foreign Office: Kwangtung Provincial Archives, held at the National Archives, Kew, London, Great Britain, FO 931/1487. For matching the “Guangdong huiguan” in this document with the “Yuedong huiguan,” Cangwu xian zhi 蒼梧縣志 (1941), 5:42a–b.
31 Gaoming xian zhi 高明縣志 (1894), 13:97a; “Chongxiu huiguan bing xitai beiji.” On postwar martyrologies, see Meyer-Fong, Tobie, What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in Nineteenth-Century China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013), 135, 164–65Google Scholar.
32 Su Fengwen 蘇鳳文, Ping Gui jilue 平桂紀略 (1889), 2:11b; Wang Kaiyun 王闓運, Xiangjun zhi 湘軍志 (Taipei: Wenyuan, 1964), 12:2a–b; Philip A. Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 114.
33 Liu Changyou 劉長佑, Liu Wushen gong (Changyou) yishu 劉武慎公（長佑）遺書, in Jindai Zhongguo shiliao congkan, vol. 245–50 (Taipei: Wenhai, 1974), 1:8a, 2:44a; Su, Ping Gui jilue, 4:3b.
34 Jian Youwen (Jen Yu-wen) 簡又文, Taiping tianguo quanshi 太平天國全史 (Kowloon: Mengjin shuwu, 1962), vol. 2, 938.
35 Liu Changyou, Yishu, 1:7a; Xinning xian zhi 新甯縣志 (1893), 26:42a.
36 Liu Changyou, Yishu, 1:8b.
37 G. William Skinner, “Mobility Strategies in Late Imperial China: A Regional Systems Analysis,” in Carol A. Smith, ed., Regional Analysis, Volume I: Economic Systems (New York: Academic Press, 1976), 335.
38 Robert J. Antony, “Subcounty Officials, the State, and Local Communities in Guangdong Province, 1644–1860,” in Dragons, Tigers, and Dogs: Qing Crisis Management and the Boundaries of State Power in Late Imperial China, edited by Robert J. Antony and Jane Kate Leonard (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 41.
39 Xinning zhou zhi 新寧州志 (1878), 3:13a–b.
40 Antony, “Subcounty Officials,” 39–40.
41 Like tiben 吏科題本, held at First Historical Archives of China, Beijing, 11786–039/GX2.8.5; QDJSLJC, vol. 23, 307.
42 Like tiben, 11786–039/GX2.8.5; Junjichu quanzong 軍機處全宗, held at First Historical Archives of China, Beijing, 4650–009/TZ8.9.25; Xinning zhou zhi, 273; Zhen'an fu zhi 鎮安府志 (1892), 4:44a; QDJSLJC, vol. 30, 194, vol. 37, 515; Baise ting zhi 百色廳志 (1891), 6:38b; “Chongxiu Yuedong huiguan beiji.”
43 Fieldnotes, Zhongdu, Luzhai, Guangxi, July 3, 2017; Liu Changyou, Yishu, 1:36a, 3:22b, 42a; Shunde xian zhi 順德縣志 (1929), 10:2b; Xinning zhou zhi, 273–274.
44 QDJSLJC, vol. 33, 509; Hunan tongzhi 湖南通志 (1885), 151:23a.
45 The Ningxiang native who led this force was Zhou Dawu 周達武.
46 QDJSLJC, vol. 38, 359; [Hunan Ningyuan] Daishi zongpu 戴氏宗譜 (1936), 2下:東田甫房世系錄:3a–b, 5:9a–10a; Ningxiang xian zhi 寧鄉縣志 (1941), biographies, 45:5b; Fuchuan xian zhi 富川縣志 (1890), 4:6b; Jen, Taiping Revolutionary Movement, 309–10; Jenks, Robert D., Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The “Miao” Rebellion, 1854–1873 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 158CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
47 These counts (of 44 and 59) exclude illegible/omitted names, native chieftaincies, and independent departments and subprefectures. QDJSLJC, vol. 48, 413–19, vol. 85, 409–15.
48 QDJSLJC, vol. 54, 384–90, vol. 61, 404–10.
49 Xinning xian zhi, 5:20a, 25b; Yulin zhou zhi 鬱林州志 (1894), 10:25b; Zhen'an fu zhi, 4:48a.
50 Shanhua xian zhi, 22:1a.
51 Miles, Steven B., Upriver Journeys: Diaspora and Empire in Southern China, 1570–1850 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2017), 66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and ibid., Opportunity in Crisis: Cantonese Migrants and the State in Late Qing China, (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2021), chap. three.
52 Shunde xian zhi, 10:1a–8b. On the “regular” vs. “irregular” routes to office, see Ch’ü, T'ung-tsu, Local Government in China under the Ch'ing (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), 18–19Google Scholar.
53 [Shunde Daliang] Longshi zupu 龍氏族譜 (1922), 14:33b–34a, 48a; QDJSLJC, vol. 54, 327–33, 343–51; Shunde xian zhi, 10:5b, 6b, 7b.
54 Longshi zupu, 14:34a; QDJSLJC, vol. 44, 198, vol. 51, 205, vol. 66, 402, vol. 85, 410; Shunde xian zhi, 10:7b.
55 Longshi zupu, 14:1a–b, 44a–b, 49b–50a, 66a, 74a; Shunde xian zhi, 10:6a–b; Zhaoping xian zhi 昭平縣志 (1934), 4:19a.
56 Elisabeth Kaske, “The Price of an Office: Venality, the Individual and the State in 19th Century China,” in Metals, Monies, and Markets in Early Modern Societies: East Asian and Global Perspectives, edited by Thomas Hirzel and Nanny Kim (Berlin: Lit, 2008), 302–3.
57 QDJSLJC, vol. 39, 214, vol. 44, 195, vol. 51, 203, vol. 51, 384, vol. 61, 405, vol. 64, 229, vol. 66, 403; Longshi zupu, 17:12b, 23a; Shunde xian zhi, 10:6b; Guy, R. Kent, Qing Governors and Their Provinces: The Evolution of Territorial Administration in China 1644–1796 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010), 98–99Google Scholar; Zhang Zhenguo 张振国, “Qingdai difang zuoza guan xuanren zhidu zhi biange” 清代地方佐杂官选任制度之变革, Lishi dang'an 3 (2008), 64–65.
58 You Zhikai 游智開 and Li Xingrui 李興銳. Qian Shifu 錢實甫, Qingdai zhiguan nianbiao 清代職官年表 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1980), vol. 2, 1703–1739, vol. 3, 1926–1959; Guy, Qing Governors and Their Provinces, 91–93.
59 Junjichu dang 軍機處檔, held at National Palace Museum, Taipei, 127447/GX10.R5.7.
60 Kaske, “Fund-Raising Wars,” 87; Xu Daling 許大齡, Qingdai juanna zhidu 清代捐納制度 (Beijing: Hafo Yanjing xueshe, 1950), 76.
61 Kaske, “Fund-Raising Wars,” 84, 100.
62 Pierre-Étienne Will, “Expectant Officials in Provincial Capitals in the Nineteenth Century,” revised version of unpublished “Being an Official: The Sale of Public Offices and Its Effects in Comparative Perspective,” paper presented at the Harvard Fairbank Center Workshop, April 25, 2009, 20. Many thanks to Professor Will for sharing this paper with me.
63 Kaske, “The Price of an Office,” 294–295; Xu, Qingdai juanna zhidu, 90.
64 Rongxian zhi 融縣志 (1936), 2:103; Xupu xian zhi 漵浦縣志 (1921), 18:15a–16a, 24:1b–2a.
65 Rongxian zhi, 2:90, 142; Xupu xian zhi, 20:11a, 14a–b; QDJSLJC, vol. 38, 355; Daniel McMahon, “Identity and Conflict on a Chinese Borderland: Yan Ruyi and the Recruitment of the Gelao During the 1795–97 Miao Revolt,” Late Imperial China, 23.2 (December 2002), 53, 57. On migrant grooves, McKeown, Adam, Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, Hawaii, 1900–1936 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001), 85Google Scholar.
66 Nanhai xian zhi 南海縣志 (1911), 15:12a; [Nanhai] Liao Weize tang jiapu 廖維則堂家譜 (1930), 11:41b.
67 Untitled stele, 1859 (XF8.12), Qixing gongyuan, Guilin, Guangxi.
68 Lingui xian zhi 臨桂縣志 (1905), 16:149.
69 Untitled stele, 1859 (XF9.6), Qixing gongyuan, Guilin, Guangxi.
70 For another deity credited for the defense of Changsha, see Schluessel, Eric, “Exiled Gods: Territory, History, Empire, and a Hunanese Deity in Xinjiang,” Late Imperial China, 41.1 (June 2020), 113–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
71 Hunan tong zhi, 242:12b; Lingui xian zhi, 15:123; Luchuan xian zhi 陸川縣志 (1941), 6:33a; Lingyun xian zhi, 凌雲縣志 (1942), unpaginated.
72 “Chongjian huiguan bing xitai bei” 重建會館並戲臺碑 (1873/74), Yuedong huiguan, Pingle, Guangxi; Like tiben, 11282–033/XF9.11.25; Zhongguo diyi lishi dang'anguan cang Qingdai guanyuan lüli dang'an quanbian 中國第一歷史檔案館藏清代官員履歷檔案全編 (Shanghai: Huadong shifan daxue, 1997), vol. 26, 294, 296; Panyu xian zhi, 48:9a.
73 Tongzhi liunian juxing dingmao ke Guangxi xiangshi timing lu 同治陸年舉行丁卯科廣西鄉試題名錄, 2b; Gaoming xian zhi, 12:26a–28b.
74 “Chongjian huiguan bing xitai bei.”
75 Tang Ling 唐凌, “Lun shangye huiguan beike ziliao de lishi jiazhi: ji yu 17–20 shiji Guangxi jingji yimin huodong de fenxi” 论商业会馆碑刻资料的历史价值-基于17～20世纪广西经济移民活动的分析, Guangxi minzu yanjiu 106 (2011), 152.
76 Pingle xian zhi, 2:21b; Fang Bingkui 方炳奎, Modun ji 磨盾集 (1867), in Qingdai shiwenji huibian, vol. 690 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 2010), 57a–58a.
77 Fieldnotes, Daxu, Lingchuan, Guangxi, July 5, 2012.
78 Fieldnotes, Piaoli, Longsheng, Guangxi, June 30, 2012; “Yuwanggong” 禹王宮, stele, 1887, Hunan huiguan, Piaoli, Longsheng, Guangxi; Zhong, Guangxi jindai xuzhen yanjiu, 394.
79 Inspectorate General of Chinese Imperial Customs, Decennial Reports, 1892–1901 (Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs), 334.
80 Report of the Mission to China of the Blackburn Chamber of Commerce, 1896–1897 (Blackburn: The North-East Lancashire Press Company, 1898), F. S. A. Bourne's Section, 120–22.
81 Luo Yudong 羅玉東, Zhongguo lijin shi 中國釐金史, in Jindai Zhongguo shiliao congkan xubian, vol. 612 (Taipei: Wenhai, 1979), 358; Cangwu xian zhi 蒼梧縣志 (1874), 10:8a–b, 17a–b, 12:31b–32b; Cangwu xian zhi (1941), 2:19b.
82 Panyu xian zhi, 48:8b; Chen Weizong 陳偉宗, “Xuzeng Taipusi qing teshou Guangxi Pingle fu zhifu Jiantian Chengong fujun xingzhuang” 卹贈太僕寺卿特授廣西平樂府知府見田陳公府君行狀 (n.d.), xinshu jielüe, 4a–b.
83 Fang Bingkui, Modun ji, 25a–27b.
84 Luo Yudong, Zhongguo lijin shi, 19; see Goodman, Native Place, 130.
85 [Hunan Daoxian] Jiangshi zupu 蔣氏族譜 (1922), 3:44a–b, 52b–53a, 7:52b, 8:51b.
86 [Shunde Maqi] Chenshi zupu 陳氏族譜 (1923), 3:18a–b, 24b, 27a.
87 Yang, Tanyuan riji, 162, 181–85.