Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vfjqv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T05:14:16.425Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nondaily Smoking Cessation Motivation for Young Adults: Scale Development and Validation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2013

Carla J. Berg
Carla J. Berg*
Affiliation:
Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Emory University School of Public Health, USA
*
Address for correspondence: Carla J. Berg, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Emory University School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road, NE, Room 524, Atlanta, GA 30322. Email: cjberg@emory.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction: Nondaily smoking is a growing public health concern, particularly among young adults. Given the lack of existing measures for assessing factors associated with this smoking pattern, the present study aims to develop a measure of motivation to quit among young adult nondaily smokers. Specifically, we developed a scale assessing motivation for nondaily smoking cessation, and examined its reliability, factor structure, and concurrent validity.

Methods: We administered an online survey to 2,000 students at six colleges in the Southeastern US, and 718 (35.9%) returned a completed survey. The current analyses focused on the 95 participants who reported nondaily smoking (i.e., smoking between 1 and 29 days of the past 30 days). In addition to the items created for scale development, measures included sociodemographics, other measures of motivation and confidence/self-efficacy, past smoking/quitting history, readiness to quit, and perceived harm.

Results: The 13-item Nondaily Smoking Cessation Motivation Questionnaire (NSCM) had an average score of 56.95 (SD = 24.33) and high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of 0.94). Factor analysis using principal components extraction with varimax rotation extracted three factors accounting for 76.8% of the variance: Controlled motivation, Autonomous motivation, and Amotivation. Concurrent and discriminant validity were documented.

Conclusions: This study provided information about the development and validation of the Nondaily Smoking Cessation Motivation Questionnaire for young adult nondaily smokers. Given the lack of validated measures to assess factors associated with nondaily smoking, this assessment may be critical in informing our intervention strategies and potentially for predicting cessation among nondaily smokers in the young adult population.

Keywords

Smokingtobacco controlsmoking cessationyouth
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Smoking Cessation , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , December 2013 , pp. 97 - 105
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Australian Academic Press Pty Ltd 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ACHA (2008). American College Health Association: National College Health Assessment Spring 2007 Reference Group Data Report (Abridged). Journal of American College Health, 56 (5), 469–479.Google Scholar
ACHA (2009). American College Health Association: National College Health Assessment Spring 2008 Reference Group Data Report (Abridged). Journal of American College Health, 57 (5), 477–488.Google Scholar
An, L. C., Hennrikus, D. J., Perry, C. L., Lein, E. B., Klatt, C., Farley, D. M., . . . Ahluwalia, J. S. (2007). Feasibility of Internet health screening to recruit college students to an online smoking cessation intervention. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9 (Suppl. 1), S11–18. doi:10.1080/14622200601083418Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Lust, K. A., Sanem, J. R., Kirch, M. A., Rudie, M., Ehlinger, E., . . . An, L. C. (2009). Smoker self-identification versus recent smoking among college students. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36 (4), 333–336. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.11.010Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Nehl, E., Sterling, K., Buchanan, T. S., Narula, S., Sutfin, E., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2011). The development and validation of a scale assessing individual schemas used in classifying a smoker: Implications for research and practice. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 13 (12), 1257–1265. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr144Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Parelkar, P. P., Lessard, L., Escoffery, C., Kegler, M. C., Sterling, K. L., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2010). Defining ‘smoker’: college student attitudes and related smoking characteristics. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 12 (9), 963–969. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq123Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., & Schauer, G. L. (In press). Results of a feasibility and acceptability trial of an online smoking cessation program targeting young adult nondaily smokers. Journal of Environmental and Public Health.Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Schauer, G. L., Buchanan, T. S., Sterling, K., DeSisto, C., Pinsker, E. A., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (Under review). Perceptions of addiction, attempts to quit, and successful quitting in nondaily and daily smokers. Nicotine and Tobacco Research.Google Scholar
Biener, L., & Abrams, D. B. (1991). The Contemplation Ladder: Validation of a measure of readiness to consider smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 10 (5), 360–365. doi:10.1037//0278-6133.10.5.360Google Scholar
Bjartveit, K., & Tverdal, A. (2005). Health consequences of smoking 1–4 cigarettes per day. Tobacco Control, 14 (5), 315–320. doi:10.1136/tc.2005.011932Google Scholar
Brown, A. E., Carpenter, M. J., & Sutfin, E. L. (2011) Occasional smoking in college: Who, what, when and why? Addictive Behaviors, 36: 1199–1204. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.07.024Google Scholar
California Department of Health and Human Services. Tobacco Control Section. (1999). California Tobacco Survey: 1999. U Jolla. CA: Cancer Prevention and Control Unit.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1997). Youth risk behavior surveillance: National College Health Risk Behavior Survey‒United States, 1995. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 46 (SS-6), 1–54. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00049859.htmGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Smoking and Tobacco Use. Retreived from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/index.htmGoogle Scholar
Crawford, S., McCabe, S., & Kurotsuchi Inkelas, K. (2008). Using the web to survey college students: Institutional characteristics that influence survey quality. Paper presented at the American Association For Public Opinion Association, Fontainebleau Resort, Miami Beach, FL.Google Scholar
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2002). Handbook of Self-determination Research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R. (2011). Who are you going to believe? Adolescents and nicotine addiction. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48 (1), 1–2. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.10.012Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., O'Loughlin, J., Pbert, L., Ockene, J. K., . . . Wellman, R. J. (2007). Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: The Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youth-2 study. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161 (7), 704–710. doi:10.1001/archpedi.161.7.704Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., Rigotti, N. A., McNeill, A. D., . . . Wood, C. (2002). Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: the DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) study. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 156 (4), 397–403.Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R., & Wellman, R. J. (2005). A sensitization-homeostasis model of nicotine craving, withdrawal, and tolerance: integrating the clinical and basic science literature. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7 (1), 9–26. doi:10.1080/14622200412331328538Google Scholar
Etter, J. F., Bergman, M. M., Humair, J. P., & Perneger, T. V. (2000). Development and validation of a scale measuring self-efficacy of current and former smokers. Addiction, 95 (6), 901–913. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.9569017.xGoogle Scholar
Evans, N. J., Gilpin, E., Pierce, J. P., Burns, D. M., & Al, E. (1992). Occasional smoking among adults: Evidence from the California tobacco survey. Tobacco Control, 1, 169–175. doi:10.1136/tc.1.3.169Google Scholar
Gilpin, E., Cavin, S. W., & Pierce, J. P. (1997). Adult smokers who do not smoke daily. Addiction, 92 (4), 473–480. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03379.xGoogle Scholar
Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor Analysis (2nd ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hassmiller, K. M., Warner, K. E., Mendez, D., Levy, D. T., & Romano, E. (2003). Nondaily smokers: who are they? American Journal of Public Health, 93 (8), 1321–1327. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1321Google Scholar
Hatcher, L. (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS® System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling, Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.Google Scholar
Hennrikus, D. J., Jeffery, R. W., & Lando, H. A. (1996). Occasional smoking in a Minnesota working population. American Journal of Public Health, 86 (9), 1260–1266. doi:10.2105/AJPH.86.9.1260Google Scholar
Hoek, J., Maubach, N., Stevenson, R., Gendall, P., & Edwards, R. (2012). Social smokers' management of conflicted identities. Tobacco Control. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050176Google Scholar
Hughes, J. R., Cohen, B., & Callas, P. W. (2009). Treatment seeking for smoking cessation among young adults. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37 (2), 211–213. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.006Google Scholar
Jimenez-Ruiz, C., Kunze, M., & Fagerstrom, K. O. (1998). Nicotine replacement: A new approach to reducing tobacco-related harm. European Respiratory Journal, 11 (2), 473–479.Google Scholar
Kaplowitz, M. D., Hadlock, T. D., & Levine, R. (2004). A Comparison of Web and Mail Survey Response Rates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 68 (1), 94–101. doi:10.1093/poq/nfh006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kline, P. (1979). Psychometrics and Psychology. London: Acaderric Press.Google Scholar
Levinson, A. H., Campo, S., Gascoigne, J., Jolly, O., Zakharyan, A., & Tran, Z. V. (2007). Smoking, but not smokers: Identity among college students who smoke cigarettes. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9 (8), 845–852. doi:10.1080/14622200701484987Google Scholar
Luoto, R., Uutela, A., & Puska, P. (2000). Occasional smoking increases total and cardiovascular mortality among men. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2, 133–139. doi:10.1080/713688127Google Scholar
Maibach, E. W., Maxfield, A., Ladin, K., & Slater, M. (1996). Translating health psychology into effective health communication. Journal of Health Psychology, 1 (3), 261–277. doi:10.1177/135910539600100302Google Scholar
Minnesota Department of Health. (2008). Tobacco use in Minnesota, 1999 to 2007: The Minnesota Adult Tobacco Survey. Retrieved from http://www.mntobacco.nonprofitoffice.comGoogle Scholar
Moran, S., Wechsler, H., & Rigotti, N. A. (2004). Social smoking among US college students. Pediatrics, 114 (4), 1028–1034. doi:10.1542/peds.2003-0558-LGoogle Scholar
Office of Applied Studies (2006). The NSDUH Report. Rockville, MD.Google Scholar
Okuyemi, K. S., Harris, K. J., Scheibmeir, M., Choi, W. S., Powell, J., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2002). Light smokers: issues and recommendations. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 4 (Suppl 2), S103–112. doi:10.1080/1462220021000032726Google Scholar
Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Krewski, D., Jerrett, M., Shi, Y., Calle, E. E., & Thun, M. J. (2009). Cardiovascular mortality and exposure to airborne fine particulate matter and cigarette smoke: shape of the exposure-response relationship. Circulation, 120 (11), 941–948. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.857888Google Scholar
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1984). Self change processes, self-efficacy and decisional balance across five stages of smoking cessation. Advances in Cancer Control-1983 (pp. 131–140). New York, NY: Alan R. Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Rollins, S., Malmstadt Schumacher, J. R., & Ling, P. M. (2002). Exploring the phenomenon of social smoking: Why do so many young adults social smoke? Paper presented at the National Conference on Tobacco or Health, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Rubinstein, M. L., Benowitz, N. L., Auerback, G. M., & Moscicki, A. B. (2009). Withdrawal in adolescent light smokers following 24-hour abstinence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11 (2), 185–189. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntn028Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 (5), 749–761. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749Google Scholar
Savageau, J. A., Mowery, P. D., & DiFranza, J. R. (2009). Symptoms of diminished autonomy over cigarettes with non-daily use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6 (1), 25–35. doi:10.3390/ijerph6010025Google Scholar
Schane, R. E., Ling, P. M., & Glantz, S. A. (2010). Health effects of light and intermittent smoking: a review. Circulation, 121 (13), 1518–1522. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.904235Google Scholar
Shadel, W. G., & Mermelstein, R. (1996). Individual differences in self-concept among smokers attempting to quit: Validation and predictive validity of measures of smoker self-concept and abstainer self-concept. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 18 (3), 151–156. doi:10.1007/BF02883391Google Scholar
Shiffman, S. (2009). Light and intermittent smokers: background and perspective. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11 (2), 122–125. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntn020Google Scholar
Song, A. V., & Ling, P. M. (2011). Social smoking among young adults: Investigation of intentions and attempts to quit. American Journal of Public Health, 101 (7), 1291–1296. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.300012Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using Multivariate Statistics. New York, NY: Harper-Collins.Google Scholar
Tindle, H. A., & Shiffman, S. (2011). Smoking cessation behavior among intermittent smokers versus daily smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 101 (7), e1–3. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300186Google Scholar
Ursprung, W. W., & DiFranza, J. R. (2010). The loss of autonomy over smoking in relation to lifetime cigarette consumption. Addictive Behaviors, 35 (1), 14–18. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.08.001Google Scholar
White, H. R., Bray, B. C., Fleming, C. B., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Transitions into and out of light and intermittent smoking during emerging adulthood. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11 (2), 211–219. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntn017Google Scholar
Woolcock, A. J., Peat, J. K., Leeder, S. R., & Blackburn, C. R. B. (1984). The development of lung function in Sydney children: Effects of respiratory illness and smoking. A ten year study. European Journal of Respiratory Diseases, 65 (132 Suppl), 1–97.Google Scholar
Wortley, P. M., Husten, C. G., Trosclair, A., Chrismon, J., & Pederson, L. L. (2003). Nondaily smokers: A descriptive analysis. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 5 (5), 755–759. doi:10.1080/1462220031000158753Google Scholar
Zhu, S. H., Sun, J., Hawkins, S., Pierce, J., & Cummins, S. (2003). A population study of low-rate smokers: Quitting history and instability over time. Health Psychology, 22, 245–252. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.3.245Google Scholar