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The Ancient Coinage of Mainland Southeast Asia
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 April 2011
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Southeast Asia's coinage during the first millenium AD is remarkably conservative and uniform. A single prototype, a silver conch and śrīvatsa coin, is the model for each mainland coinage issued over a period of more than five hundred years, from about AD 450 to 1000. (Plate 1, coin 1) Silver is by far the preferred metal for minting. Gold and copper are rarely used, and then only in late or debased issues. Most of the cointypes are limited in circulation to their place of issue, providing insight into the geographical extent of effective political control in the early states of Candra Arakan, Pyu Śrīkṣetra and Mon Dvāravatī. Weight standards are extremely variable indicating that each state had a localized currency and not one immediately acceptable on an international basis. The main exception is the Rising Sun/Śrīvatsa coinage found in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. Unfortunately this Rising Sun coinage cannot be attributed to any mainland state with certainty.
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References
Research for this study was made possible by support from the American Numismatic Society, the Kress Foundation, and from Cornell University. The author's doctoral dissertation, “A Survey of Native Southeast Asian Coinage circa 450–1850: Documentation and Typology” (Cornell University, May 1983) provides a comprehensive overview of Southeast Asian numismatic developments. This paper is a revised version of chapter two of that work.
The author would like to thank Mr. Joe Cribb of the British Museum, London, Dr. Michael Bates of the American Numismatic Society, New York, Dr. Michael Mitchiner, Mr. Lewis A. Shaw, Dr. Pamela Gutman and Dr. Craig Burns for kindly providing the coin photographs which accompany this article. The author is also grateful for their comments, criticisms and suggestions while this work was in progress.
Following numismatic practice, coin citations are generally presented in a shortened form, such as Mitchiner (1982), no. 3414. A work is cited in full at its first appearance. In instances where a single specimen is referred to by more than one source, an equal sign (=) joins the references. When different specimens of the same type are referred to, citations are separated by a semicolon (;).
1 Surveys of mainland coinage during the first millenium include, M. Mitchiner [hereafter Mitchiner (1972)], “Some Arakan and Pyu-Mon Coins”, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India [hereafter JNSI 34 (1972): 47–59Google Scholar and “The Date of the Early Arakanese, Pyu and Mon Coinages (‘Symbolic Coins’)”, Seaby's Coin and Medal Bulletin [hereafter SCMB] (May, 1981): 128–32.Google Scholar Often impressionistic, Mitchiner's pronouncements are to be approached with caution. Gutman, P., “The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia”, Journal of the Siam Society [hereafter JSS] 66, pt. 1 (1978): 8–21Google Scholar, views early Southeast Asian coinage as a means of extending kingly authority. It is a rewritten version of chapter three of her doctoral dissertation, “Ancient Arakan” (Australian National University, 1976), pp. 131–57Google Scholar [hereafter Gutman (1976)]. Her most valuable contribution is an examination of the symbols appearing on these early coins. J. Cribb has critiqued Mitchiner and Gutman in “The Date of the Symbolical Coins of Burma and Thailand — A reexamination of the evidence”, ms. 1981. A revised and abbreviated version was published in SCMB (August, 1981): 224–26.Google Scholar
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6 Yongbunkoed, Chaloem, Krasap Thai [Thai coins] (Bangkok: The Social Sciences Press, 1966) [hereafter KT (1966a)]Google Scholar, Plate V. The coin illustrated in KT is from Phayre (1882), however the Thai report is apparently genuine.
7 The discovery was first reported by Mitra, R., “Silver coins from Burmah”, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1878): 102–103Google Scholar. See also Phayre, Arthur P., Coins of Arakan, of Pegu, and of Burma (London: Trubner & Co., 1882), p. 33 [hereafter Phayre (1882)].Google Scholar
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14 The only published photograph of these pieces is in Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 10, fig. 3.3. The information on provenance is from recent publications on Burmese archaeology kindly provided by Professor M. Aung-Thwin, personal communication, 30 April 1982.
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19 “Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, p. 56.
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29 See D. C. Sircar, “No. 11. Inscriptions of the Chandras of Arakan”, pp. 103–109 and “No. 13. Fragmentary Copper Plate Grant from Arakan”, pp. 61–66. The validity of dating Arakanese inscriptions palaeographically has been questioned recently by J. Cribb, “The Date of the Symbolic Coins of Burma and Thailand — A reexamination of the evidence”, ms. 1981. The following comment by E. H. Johnston is an adequate rejoinder:
When these [ancient Arakan] inscriptions are compared with the few which have been published from Burma proper, the curious point arises that the scripts used in Arakan, unlike those in Burma, all find close analogies with those current in North Eastern India … the parallelism is so exact that we need hardly assume any substantial “time-lag” for the introduction of changes; that assumption would in the circumstances make it necessary to postulate a time-lag of similar length in all cases throughout a period of five centuries.
(From “Some Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan”, p. 360.)
30 Gutman (1976), pp. 120–26.Google Scholar
31 See Phayre (1882), Plate II, 11 and p. 29; a smaller coin is published in Wicks (1980), Plate XIV, 1 and Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 18, fig. 3.18.Google Scholar
32 Phayre (1882), Plate II, 10. A similar coin, but with faint traces of an inscription is recorded in Gutman (1976), Plate XXXVII, 2.Google Scholar
33 Phayre (1882), Plate II, 7; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 651, no. 5185; Gutman (1976), Plate XXXVIII, 2.Google Scholar
34 Gutman (1976).
35 Gutman (1976).
36 D. C. Sircar, “No. 11. Inscriptions of the Chandras of Arakan”, p. 109.
37 D. C. Sircar, “No. 13. Fragmentary Copper Plate Grant from Arakan”, p. 63.
38 Two sizes of standard Harikela coins are mentioned by Khan, F. A., Mainamati, A Preliminary Report… (Pakistan: Department of Archaeology, 1963).Google Scholar The small bracteates seen by the author were at one time in the possession of Scott Semans.
39 Gutman (1976), Plate XL, 13 and p. 172.
40 Gutman(1976), p. 172.
41 Phayre (1882), Plate II,3; Gutman (1976), Plate XL, 15 and p. 174; Latter, Thomas, “The Coins of Arakan — the symbolical coins”, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 15 (1846): 238–40 [hereafter Latter (1846)]Google Scholar; Capt. Fryer, G. E., “Notes on an Arakanese Coin”, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 41, no. 1 (1872): 202, fig. C (hereafter Fryer (1872)].Google Scholar
42 Latter (1846), Plate III, 3; Phayre (1882), Plate II, 1.
43 Gutman (1976), p. 175. A full-unit coin is illustrated in Gutman (1976), Plate XLI, 2. She also mentions, but does not illustrate, a half-unit coin.
44 Gutman (1976), p. 176. The coin is illustrated in Gutman (1976), Plate XLI, 3 and 4.
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46 E. H. Johnston, “Some Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan”, p. 366.
47 Gutman (1976), p. 181.
48 See Rashid, M. Harunur, “The Early History of Southeast Bengal in the Light of Recent Archaeological Material” (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge, 1968). P. Gutman, “Ancient Arakan”, pp. 126–30 and 177–81; and R. Wicks, “Bull/Trisula Coin Issues”, pp. 109–31.Google Scholar
49 The best discussions are, Mukherjee, B. N., “The Original Territory of Harikela”, Bangladesh Lalit Kola 1, pt. 2 (July, 1975): 115–20.Google ScholarRashid, M. Harunur, “The Origin and Early Kingdom of the Chandras of Rohiatgiri”, Bangladesh Historical Studies 2 (1971): 9–30Google Scholar and Chowdhury, A. M., Dynastic History of Bengal (Dacca, 1967), pp. 150–53.Google Scholar
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51 See Mukherjee, B. N., “The Coin-Legend Harikela”, Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta) 18 (1976): 99–101; B. N. Mukherjee, “The Original Territory of Harikela”, pp. 115–19.Google Scholar
52 See M. Harunur Rashid, “The Origin and Early Kingdom of the Chandras of Rohiatgiri”, pp. 9–30.
53 For some examples of early Harikela coins, see Phayre (1882), Plate II, 12; Smith, Vincent A., Catalogue of the coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Oxford: Clarendon Press, Vol. I, 1906), Plate XXXI, 10; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 659, nos. 5259, 5260 and 5261Google Scholar; Wicks (1980), Plate XIV, 5. The Sylhet hoard is published by MacDowall, D. W., “Eight Coins of Arakan from Sylhet”, Numismatic Chronicle (London) 6th series 20 (1960): 229–34.Google Scholar This consists of later coins. Transitional coins, of a lower weight standard, are published in Wicks (1980), Plate XIV, 6 and 7; Mitchiner III (1979).
54 Dani, A. H., “Coins of the Chandra Kings of East Bengal”, JNSI 24 (1962): 141–2Google Scholar, interpreted the finds at Mainamati to be of the tenth century. Subsequent studies, primarily those of M. Harunur Rashid, show that Dani based his chronology on inaccurate information from the Department of Archaeology. (See Rashid, M. Harunur, “The Mainamati Gold Coins”, Bangladesh Lalit Kala 1, pt. 1 (1975):45Google Scholar, particularly footnote 49.] Dani now accepts the eighth century dating and Harikela reading for these coins. See M. Harunur Rashid, “The Origin and Early Kingdom of the Chandras of Rohiatgiri”, p. 18. A useful summary of the numismatic evidence can be found in Khan, F. A., Mainamati, A Preliminary Report… (Pakistan: Department of Archaeology, 1963).Google Scholar
55 These are dealt with in R. Wicks, “Bull/Trisula Coin Issues”, pp. 124–27. Mukherjee, B. N., “A note on a few series of Silver coins”, JNSI 39, pts. 1–2 (1977): 135–38Google Scholar and “Harikela and Related Coinages”, Journal of Ancient Indian History [hereafter JAIH] 10 (1976/1977): 166–71.Google Scholar Other publications of the bracteates include Mitchiner II (1978), p. 659, no. 5262; p. 660, nos. 5263–66; p. 661, nos. 5267–70; Malloy, A. G., “New Discovery of the Candra Kingdom of East Bengal”, Medieval Coins XV (fpl) 1978, pp. 2, 9–10Google Scholar, Plates III and IV; Mitchiner, M. B., “A Group of Broad Repoussee Silver Coins Struck by the Candra Kings of East Bengal Circa AD 1000”, Spink's Numismatic Circular [hereafter SNC] 86, no. 1 (January, 1978): 8–9Google Scholar; Mukherjee, “Harikela and Related Coinages”, pp. 166–71; and Chowdhury, V. and Ray, P., “Broad Repoussee Silver Coins Struck by the Candra Kings of East Bengal, a Response”, SNC (1978), pp. 186–87.Google Scholar
56 Mukherjee, “Harikela and Related Coinages”, pp. 166–71, lists a number of variant readings: Veraka, Viraka, Piraka, Varita, Sivagiri and Jayagiri. The present writer questions the validity of these interpretations. See R. Wicks, “Bull/Trisula Coin Issues”, p. 125, note 33.
57 This division is noted by Mukherjee, “Harikela and Related Coinages”, p. 170.
58 Mukherjee, “Harikela and Related Coinages”, p. 167.
59 The most useful study of the Pyu remains Luce, G. H., “The Ancient Pyu”, JBRS 27, pt. 3 (1937): 239–53Google Scholar; Burma Research Society Fiftieth Anniversary Publications no. 2 (Rangoon, 1960), pp. 307–316 [hereafter Reprint edition].Google Scholar
60 Cf. Ibid., for references to excavations.
61 See Aung, Myint, “The Excavations at Halin”, JBRS 53, pt. 3 (1970): 55–64.Google Scholar
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63 G. H. Luce, “The Ancient Pyu” (Reprint edition), p. 312, note 1.
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65 Translation by Waley, A.. From Harvey, G. E., History of Burma (London, 1925), p. 14.Google Scholar
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67 Luce and Oey, The Man Shu, p. 90.
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69 Yule, H. and Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharial, 2nd edition, 1968), p. 896.Google Scholar See also Gutman, “The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia”, p. 9.
70 LeMay, R., The Coinage of Siam (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1932), pp. 19–20 [hereafter LeMay (1932)].Google Scholar
71 Gutman, “The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia”, p. 9.
72 Luce and Oey, The Man Shu, p. 91.
73 Scattered publications of Class A coins include, Robinson, M. and Domrow, R., “Some New Pyu Coins and Modern Fantasies”, Oriental Numismatic Society [hereafter ONS] Newsletter no. 78 (June, 1982): 2–3Google Scholar, no. 3; Mitchiner, M. B., “Early Burmese Coinage and King Bodawpaya's Restrikes”, ONS Newsletter no. 68 (October, 1980): 1–4, nos. 4–6Google Scholar; Cappon, “Trouvaille de Monnaies en Cochinchine”, Revue Numismatique 3rd series, 4 (1886): 295–97Google Scholar; Mitchiner III (1979), no. 2628; Mitchiner (1972), Plate III, 9.
74 Duroiselle, C., “Excavations at Hmawza”, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual 1926–27, Plate XLII, f[hereafter Duroiselle (1930)].Google Scholar
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76 U. Than Thun, “A Forgotten Town of Burma”, p. 54.
77 Full-unit coins with an angular bhaddapitha can be found in Mitchiner (1972), Plate III, 10; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 656, no. 5242; Latter (1844), p. 571 = Phayre (1882), Plate V, 1 = Guehler, Ulrich, “Essay on the symbols and marks of old Siamese coins”, JSS 37, no. 2 (1949): 124–43, Plate II, 2.Google Scholar Full-unit coins with a curved bhaddapitha can be found in Duroiselle (1930), Plate XLII, f = Malleret ADM III (1962), Plate XLVI, 3; Duroiselle (1930), Plate XLII, f = Malleret ADM III (1962), Plate XLVI, 2 = Thaw, U Aung, Historical Sites in Burma (Rangoon: The Ministry of Union Culture, 1972), p. 9Google Scholar; Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 9, fig. 3.1. For one-quarter unit coins with an angular bhaddapitha, see Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 9, fig. 3.2; U Aung Thaw (1968), Plate LVIII; for the angular bhaddapitha, Mitchiner II (1978), p. 656, no. 5243–45; Mitchiner (1972), Plate II, 11; Duroiselle (1930), Plate XLII, e = Malleret vol. III (1962), Plate XLVI, 4; Thiele (1972), coin 12; Mitchiner (1980), p. 2, figs. 2 and 3.
78 See Robinson and Domrow, “Some New Pyu Coins and Modern Fantasies”, pp. 2–3, nos. 1–2; Mitchiner, M. B., “Some New Pyu Coins”, ONS Newsletter no. 78 (June, 1982): 4.Google Scholar
79 For one-unit coins, see Mitchiner II (1978), p. 656, nos. 5238–41; Mitchiner III (1979), nos. 2617–20; Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 10, fig. 3.5; Temple, Richard C., “Currency and Coinage among the Burmese”, Indian Antiquary 57 (1928), Plate IIIa, 2; Taw Sein Ko, “Excavations at Hmawza.”, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report 1914 [hereafter ASI, AR], Plate XLVII, 9–10Google Scholar; Fea, Leonardo, Quattro Anni fra i Birmani (Milano: Hoepli, 1896), fig. 175 [hereafter Fea (1896)], no. 2621.Google Scholar
80 Mya, U, “Some hitherto unknown Burmese coins”, ASI, AR 1930–1934, pt. 2, pp. 331–35.Google Scholar
81 Taw Sein Ko, ASI, AR (1910–1911), p. 90, Plate XLXII, 9–10.Google Scholar
82 Coedès, G., Recueil des Inscriptions du Siam, pt. 1 (Bangkok, 1924), p. l.note l.Google Scholar
83 Coedès, G., The Indianized States of Southeast Asia(Honolulu: East-West Press, 1968), p. 76.Google Scholar
84 These medals fall outside the scope of this study. They are discussed by Boeles, J. J., “The King of Śri Dvāravatī and his Regalia”, JSS 52, pt. 1 (Aprìl, 1964): 99–114.Google Scholar
85 The first to do so is Yamamoto, “East Asian Historical Sources for Dvāravatī Studies” (ms. 1977), pp. 2–5.Google Scholar Gutman, “The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia”, p. 9, accepts this identification.
86 As quoted in G. H. Luce, “Countries Neighboring Burma”, JBRS Reprint, pp. 280–81.
87 See Luce, “Countries Neighboring Burma”, p. 281, note 4.
88 Xin Tang Shu as recorded in the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (726 edition), 218.8.102.218:1.
89 Du You, Tungdian (Taipei, 1962), p. 1010.Google Scholar
90 See Sargent, C.S., Manual of the Trees of North America (Boston, 1905), p. 293.Google Scholar
91 Gujin Tushu Jicheng (1726 edition), 20.269.552:29.
92 Schjoth, F., Chinese Currency (Hancock edition, 1965), p. 7.Google Scholar See coin numbers 86–87 on plate 13. Schjoth mistranslates the term as ‘elm-leaf’. Weights and diameters of coins are taken from Schjoth, p. 84. This work was originally published as The Currency of the Far East: The Schjoth Collection at the Numismatic Cabinet of the University of Oslo, Norway (London and Oslo, 1929).Google Scholar
93 See Guehler, Ulrich, “Further studies of old Thai coins”, JSS 35, no. 2 (1944)Google Scholar, Plate X,3; Guehler (1949), Plate 1,3 and 5; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 653, nos. 5210 and 5211; KT(1966a), fifth plate, bottom.
94 Boeles, “The King of Śrī Dvāravatī and his Regalia”, p. 101.
95 Boisselier, Jean, “Recentes Recherches Archeologiques en Thailande”, Arts Asiatiques 12 (1965): 125–74, fig. 26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 653, no. 5210; KT(1966a), fourth plate, first, third and fourth row.
96 Coins in Thailand (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1973) [hereafter CIT(1973)], fig. 8, top left and right; KT(1966a), fourth plate, third row (two specimens).Google Scholar
97 For large module coins, see Mitchiner II (1978), p. 654, nos. 5213–20; KT(1966a), fifth plate, top row. For the smaller coins, Mitchiner II (1978), p. 655, nos. 5221–28; CIT(1973), fig. 8; KT(1966a), fifth plate, second row.Google Scholar
98 Mitchiner II (1978), p. 651, nos. 5229–37; KT(1966a).
99 Boisselier, J., “Travaux de la Mission Archeologique Francaise en Thailande”, Arts Asiatiques 25 (1972), fig. 3, p. 29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Guide to the U Tong National Museum (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1966).Google Scholar
100 LeMay (1932), Plate 1,5; Guehler (1949), Plate I,4; XT(1966a), sixth plate, top; CIT(1973), figs. 9–10; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 653, no. 5212.
101 CIT (1973), figs. 11–12.
102 See CIT(1973), figs. 15–16.
103 Boeles, J., “A note on the Ancient City called Lavapura”, JSS 55, pt. 1 (1967): 113–14.Google Scholar
104 KT (1966a), fifth plate.
105 KT (1966a), third plate.
106 For example, a silver coin with the design of a deer on the obverse and a floral star or rosette on the reverse has been associated, wrongly, with Dvāravatī. See Oliver, T., Twenty Centuries of Coins, Thailand's Currency Through the Ages (Bangkok: Published by the author, 1978), p. 12.Google Scholar He calls the coin a sixth century ‘link’ between Funan and Dvāravatī. The piece has clear Ayudhyan affinities, however. Another specimen is illustrated in Kneedler, W. Harding, “The Coins of North Siam”, JSS 29, no. 1 (Aug., 1936)Google Scholar, Plate XI, 2. The ANS possesses a cast specimen.
107 Mitchiner II (1978), no. 5208; Mitchiner II (1979), nos. 2581–85; Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 14, fig. 3.12.
108 Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 11, fig. 3.6.
109 Mya, U, “Some hitherto unknown Burmese coins”, ASI, AR (1930–1934), pt. 2, pp. 331–35.Google Scholar
110 Malleret, ADM III (1962), pp. 131ff.
111 Boisselier, “Recentes Recherches Archeologiques en Thailande”, p. 144.
112 U Aung Thaw, Report on the Excavations at Beikthano, p. 64.
113 Mitchiner III (1979), p. 316, no. 2567x.
114 Publication of large Class A specimens include, Smith (1906), Plate XXXI, 16; Temple (1928), Plate III, 5; Mitchiner (1972), Plate III, 7 and 8; Boisselier (1965), fig. 27; Theile (1972), coin 1; CIT (1973), fig. 1; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 657, nos. 5246–52; Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 11, fig. 3.7. A quarter-unit Class A coin is published in KT (1966a), second plate, third row. A sandstone ‘seal’ from the military camp at Lopburi inscribed with the reverse śrīvatsa is also known. See Boisselier, Jean, “Recherches Archeologiques en Thailande”, Arts Asiatiques 20 (1969): 53, fig. 11.Google Scholar
115 One unit Class B coins are published in Malleret, ADM III (1962), Plate XLIV, no. 950; U Aung Thaw (1968), Plate LVIII, a; Mitchiner (1972), Plate III, 6; CIT(1973), fig. 1. Smaller one-quarter unit coins are illustrated by, Fea (1896), fig. 173, c-d; U Aung Thaw (1968), Plate LVIII, a; Thiele (1972), coin 3; Mitchiner II (1978). p. 657, nos. 5253–56, 5258. A one-eighth or one-tenth denomination coin is also reported.
116 Malleret, ADM III, p. 137.
117 Malleret, ADM III, pp. 137–38, no. 951.
118 A letter from Coedès was published in Guehler, “Essay on the Symbols and Marks of Old Siamese Coins”, p. 142a.
119 Fea (1896), fig. 173, a-b.
120 Guehler (1944), Plate X, 2; Mitchiner II (1978), p. 658, no. 5257; Mitchiner (1980), p. 4, fig. 12; Robinson and Shaw (1980), p. 12, fig. 3.9.
121 Cappon, “Trouvaille de Monnaies en Cochinchine”, pp. 295–97.
122 M. Mitchiner, personal communication and Gutman, “The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia”, pp. 8–21.