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The Diplomacy of Dependency: The Philippines and Peacemaking with Japan, 1945–52

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

Roger Dingman
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Extract

Historians have examined the Japanese peace settlement of 1951 in a variety of ways. A few have treated it as an episode in the ongoing evolution of the structure of international relations in the Pacific and East Asia. Most have focused on the interaction between the principal victor, the United States, and vanquished Japan, weighing the negotiating successes and failures of each and assessing the impact of the settlement on subsequent Japanese-American relations. Recently still other historians have exploited newly available archival materials to analyze the role middle-range powers such as Australia and Britain played in shaping the 1951 peace treaty. While this research has revealed a great deal about the San Francisco peace settlement, it has left unexplored the part small powers played in a major restructuring of the Pacific/East Asian international order.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 17 , Issue 2 , September 1986 , pp. 307 - 321
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 1986

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References

The support of the United States National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Australian National University, and the Yoshida International Education Foundation which made possible the research for this essay is gratefully acknowledged. Earlier versions of this essay were presented at the Ninth Conference of International Historians of Asia(Manila,November 1983)Google Scholar and the Eighth Hosei University International Symposium(Tokyo,December 1983)Google Scholar.

1 Dunn, Frederick S., Peacemaking and the Settlement with Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Akira, Iriye, The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974)Google Scholar; and Chihiro, Hosoya, San Furanshisuko kowa e no michi (Tokyo: Chuo Koron sha, 1984)Google Scholar treat the peace settlement in broad international terms; Dower, John W., “Occupied Japan and the American Lake”, in America's Asia, ed. Friedman, Edward and Selden, Mark (New York: Pantheon, 1971), pp. 146–206Google Scholar; Kumao, Nishimura, San Furanshisuko heiwa joyaku, Volume 27 of Nihon gaiko shi (Tokyo: Kajima kenkyu jo shuppan kai, 1971)Google Scholar, and Yoshitsu, Michael, Japan and the San Francisco Peace Settlement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983)Google Scholar analyze the peace treaty from great power points of view; Buckley, Roger, Occupation Diplomacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Tsutomu, Kikuchi, “Asutoraria to taiNichi shoki kowa no teiso”, Kokusai mondai #282 (09 1983): 47–71Google Scholar, and my “The View from Down Under: Australia and Peacemaking with Japan, 1945–1952”, in The Occupation of Japan: the International Context: Proceedings of the Sixth MacArthur Memorial Symposium, ed. Burkman, Thomas A. (Norfolk, Virginia: MacArthur Memorial, 1984), pp. 99–115Google Scholar rely on archival sources unavailable to early analysts of middle-range power behaviour; Kesavan, K.V., Japan's Relations with Southeast Asia, 1952–1960 (Bombay: Somaiya Publications, 1972)Google Scholar, ch. 2 is a notable exception to the dearth of analysis of small power behaviour.

2 Carlos P. Romulo to John Foster Dulles, 15 June 1951, Guillermo Guevara papers, University of the Philippines Library, Quezon City; New York Times (hereinafter NYT), 24 Mar., 5 Sept. 1945; 15 Feb. 1947.

3 Snow, Edgar, “The Philippines Cry for Help; Never More Dependent than on the Eve of Independence”, Saturday Evening Post 218 (16 03 1946): 14–15Google Scholar; NYT, 30 Oct., 12 Nov. 1945; 1 May, 5 July 1946; Kerkvliet, Benedict, The Huk Rebellion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), chs. 4–5Google Scholar.

4 NYT, 30 Dec. 1945; 29 Apr., 24 July, 10 Oct. 1946; Lichuaco, Marcial P., Roxas (Manila: Kiko Printing Press, 1952), pp. 199–212Google Scholar; Lightfoot, Keith, The Philippines (New York: Praeger, 1973), p. 131Google Scholar.

5 Snow, “The Philippines Cry for Help”, p. 14; Lazo, Carlos R., Quirino: Selected Speeches (Manila: Orient Publishing Company, 1953), pp. 21, 60Google Scholar; Meyer, Milton W., A Diplomatic History of the Philippine Republic (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1965), pp. 12, 17, 35–36, 45Google Scholar; NYT, 12 February 1948; Kerkvliet, p. 193.

6 NYT, 23 Mar., 11 Aug., 21 Oct. 1945; Meyer, pp. 63–66.

7 For an example of small power policy based on contribution to the occupation of Japan, see Kay, Robin, ed., Documents on New Zealand External Affairs Volume II The Surrender and Occupation of Japan (hereinafter DNZEA) (Wellington: Government Printer, 1982), pp. 1285–88Google Scholar; NYT, 22 Sept. 1946; Jose D. Ingles interview, 25 November 1983; “Carlos P. Romulo”, in Current Biography Yearbook 1957 (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1957), pp. 472–75Google Scholar. For examples of Romulo's efforts to sway American opinion, see his I Saw the Philippines Fall (New York: Doubleday, 1942)Google Scholar; Mother America (New York: Doubleday, 1943)Google Scholar; My Brother Americans (New York: Doubleday, 1945)Google Scholar; and I See the Philippines Rise (New York: Doubleday, 1946)Google Scholar; NYT, 30 Mar. 1946; 9, 27 May 1947 entries, 1947 World Tour summary, pre-presidential box 2, Elpidio Quirino papers. Ayala Museum, Makati, Manila.

8 NYT, 27, 29 Sept., 10 Oct. 1945; 12, 16 May 1946; 14 May 1947.

9 NYT, 2 July 1946; Department of State, Historical Office, Foreign Relations of the United States (hereinafter FRUS) 1946, 8:123Google Scholar; DNZEA: 319; Meyer, p. 65.

10 United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1949 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. 846–47Google Scholar; FRUS, 1945, 6: 1004–1009Google Scholar; FRUS, 1947, 6: 376–80Google Scholar; DNZEA: 405, 427–28, 458, 462–63, 509–511, 553–54, 567–71, 614–16, 639–43.

11 Report on Japan's Capacity to Pay Reparations, enclosed in Carlos P. Romulo to John Foster Dulles, 15 June 1951, Guillermo Guevara papers; Collas, Juan, ed., The Quirino Way: A Collection of the Speeches and Addresses of Elpidio Quirino (Manila: no publisher given, 1964), pp. 26, 28Google Scholar; Meyer, pp. 64–65.

12 United States aide memoire, in Lockett to Elpidio Quirino, 11 May 1949, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers; NYT, 16 May 1947; 16, 22 Apr., 17 July 1948; 13 May 1949; Kerkvliet, pp. 200–202; Manila Chronicle, 5 Apr. 1949, in News Digests box, Quirino papers; Constantino, Renato, ed., Recto Reader (Manila: Recto Memorial Foundation, 1965), p. 104Google Scholar.

13 Joaquin M. Elizalde to Elpidio Quirino, 17 May 1949, Quirino-Elizalde special correspondence box; Carlos P. Romulo to Elpidio Quirino, #820, 8 July 1949, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box, Quirino papers.

14 NYT, 30 Apr. 1945; Manila Bulletin, 21 Mar., Manila Times, 17 Mar., in News Digests box; Neri memorandum for the President, 4 June; Minutes of Quirino-Chiang Kai-shek Conference,Baguio,10 July 1949, Foreign Affairs Department box, Quirino papersGoogle Scholar.

15 Ibid.; 15 July 1949 Quirino speech, in News Digests box, Quirino papers.

16 Romulo to Quirino, 12 July, Quirino to Romulo, 3 Aug., Quirino — Romulo special correspondence box; Minutes of Quirino-Chiang Kai-shek Conference,Baguio,10–11 JulyGoogle Scholar; Neri memorandum for the President, 15 July 1949, Department of Foreign Affairs box, Quirino papers.

17 Oliver, Robert T., Syngman Rhee and American Involvement in Korea, 1942–1960: A Personal Narrative (Seoul: Panmun Book Company, 1978), p. 255Google Scholar; Shi-Ching, Hsiao, Chinese-Philippine Diplomatic Relations (Quezon City: Bookman House, 1975), pp. 33–34Google Scholar; Elpidio Quirino manuscript memoirs, pp. 306–319; Romulo to Quirino #'s 829, 235, 11, 14 July, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box; Elizalde to Quirino, 12 July, Quirino-Elizalde special correspondence box; Neri memorandum for the president 15 July, Romulo to Quirino, 11 Aug., Claro Recto to Romulo, 5, 11 Aug., Jose Laurel to Romulo, 9 Aug. 1949, Foreign Affairs Department box, Quirino papers; FRUS, 1949, 6: 1161–63, 1174, 1215Google Scholar.

18 Meyer, pp. 108–109; NYT, 9, 22 Nov. 1949; FRUS, 1950, 6: 1412–16Google Scholar.

19 Romulo to Dean Acheson, 1 Mar., Romulo to Quirino, 14, 21 Mar. 1950, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box, Quirino papers.

20 Romulo to Quirino, 22 Feb., 21 Mar., 28 April, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box; Romulo to Quirino, 26 April 1950, Department of Foreign Affairs box, Quirino papers; FRUS 1950, 6: 1413–14, 1416, 1423–24Google Scholar.

21 Romulo to Quirino, 22 Feb., 21 Mar. 1950, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box; Quirino papers; FRUS, 1950, 6: 1428–29, 1440–42, 1448–50Google Scholar.

22 Romulo to Quirino, 21 Mar., 2 May, Madamba memorandum forwarding draft Southeast Asian Union Convention, 9 May, Romulo radio address, 25 May, Final Action and Proceedings of the Baguio Conference of 1950,Baguio Conference press release,27 May 1950, Department of Foreign Affairs box, Quirino papersGoogle Scholar; Meyer, pp. 152–54.

23 FRUS, 1950, 6: 1432Google Scholar.

24 FRUS, 1950, 6: 1295, 1309Google Scholar.

25 FRUS, 1950, 6: 1309–1311Google Scholar; Romulo to Quirino, #1137, 27 Sept. 1950, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box, Quirino papers.

26 FRUS, 1950, 6: 1359–60Google Scholar; FRUS, 1951, 6: 789–91Google Scholar.

27 FRUS, 1951, 6: 1521–23Google Scholar; Romulo to Quirino, 20 Jan., 5 Feb., 23 Apr. 1951, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box, Quirino papers.

28 FRUS, 1951, 6: 152–54, 880–83Google Scholar.

29 FRUS, 1951, 6: 180, 196–97, 199, 201, 900–901Google Scholar; Romulo to Quirino, 21 Dec. 1950, Quirino-Romulo special correspondence box, Quirino papers.

30 FRUS, 1951, 6: 987, 1007, 1011, 1031–1032Google Scholar; Romulo to Quirino, 26 Apr. 1951, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers.

31 Marciano to Guevara, 11 May, n.d. Apr. Secretary of Foreign Affairs to the President, Comments on 29 March “Composite” Draft Japanese Peace treaty, Guillermo Guevara papers; Romulo to Quirino, 8 May, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers; Report of Subcommittee on Japan's Capacity to Pay Reparations, 26 May 1951, Vicente G. Sinco papers, University of the Philippines Library, Quezon City.

32 FRUS, 1951, 6: 1125–27, 1133–34Google Scholar.

33 Lopez to Romulo, 27 April; Carlos P. Romulo papers, University of the Philippines Library, Quezon City; Harrington to Melby, 17 May, Melby to Ely, 10 Aug. 1951. John W. Melby papers, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.

34 Romulo to John Foster Dulles, 15 June, Guillermo Guevara papers; FRUS, 1951, 6: 1180, 1215–16Google Scholar; Salvador P. Lopez to Romulo, 12 July 1951, Romulo papers.

35 Lucas V. Madamba memorandum, 13 July, Report of the Subcommittee on the Feasibility of Signing the Peace Treaty with Protest or Dissenting Vote, 15 July, Guillermo Guevara papers; draft Christian Science Monitor article. David T. Stemberg papers, American Historical Collection, United States Embassy, Manila; Philippines Free Press, 21 July 1951.

36 Lopez to Romulo, 26 July 1951, Romulo papers; FRUS, 1951, 6: 225, 229–36, 1215–16, 1223–25Google Scholar.

37 NYT 28 Aug. 1951; Lazo, p. 199.

38 The Irreducible Minimum of Reparations, 20 Aug., Vicente G. Sinco papers; Romulo to Quirino, 27 Aug., trip box, Quirino papers; NYT, 28 Aug. 1951; Lazo, p. 254.

39 FRUS, 1951, 6: 1313–17Google Scholar; NYT, 3, 8 Sept.; Memorandum of Romulo-Yoshida Shigeru conversation 3 Sept., frames 0039–0047, flash 1, reel B'-0010, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives, Tokyo; Romulo speech, 7 Sept. 1951, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers.

40 Quirino to Romulo, 7 Sept., trip box; Romulo to Quirino, 12 Sept. 1951, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers; FRUS, 1951, 6: 1563–64Google Scholar.

41 Romulo to Quirino, 12 Sept. 1951, Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers; Kesavan, p. 61.

42 Thailand Consul General Manila Biweekly Report, 16 Nov., American Historical Collection, Manila; Manila Bull's Eye, 19 Nov.; Elizalde to Quirino, 19 Nov., Guillermo Guevara papers; Manila to Department of State, # 52, 20 Nov., box 4, NND 832469, Record Group 59, United States National Archives, Washington, D. C ; Oda Atsuko to Laurel, 15 Sept., Wajima Takeshi to Laurel, 6 Dec. 1951, box 31, Matsumoto Takizo to Laurel, 17 Jan. 1952, box 22, Jose P. Laurel papers, Jose P. Laurel Memorial Foundation, Manila.

43 Department of Foreign Affairs to Arizabal, 10 Sept., Department of Foreign Affairs to Quirino, n.d. Oct., 1951 trip box; Macapagal to Quirino, 20 Sept., Japanese Peace Treaty box, Quirino papers; Department of State 445 to Tokyo, 14 Sept.; Tokyo to Department of State, # 587, 19 Sept., # 627, 24 Sept., and unnumbered 25 Sept.; Manila to Department of State, # 472, 20 Sept.; # 68, 18 Dec. 1951, # 2857, 12 Feb. 1952, file 320 Japan-Philippines, box 4, NND 832469, Record Group 59, United States National Archives; Seijiro, Yoshizawa, Kowa go no gaiko shi 1: Tai rekkoku kankei, Volume 29 of Nihon gaiko shi (Tokyo: Kajima shuppan kai, 1973), p. 283Google Scholar treats these talks briefly; Yoshizawa Yoko, “NichiHi baisho kosho: baisho joko no seiritsu o meguru HiBei NichiBei kosho” (Japan-Philippines Reparations Negotiations: Philippine- and Japan–United States Negotiations for the Establishment of Reparations Provisions) Kyoto Sangyo Daigaku ronshu 8 (September 1978): 194–96 and “NichiHi baisho gaiko kosho, 1951 kugatsu-1953 shigatsu” (Japan-Philippines Reparations: From September 1951 to April 1953), Kyoto Sangyo Daigaku ronshu 9 (January 1980): 56–66 analyze the conversations in Tokyo in September 1951 and those in Manila in January 1952 but omit mention of informal Japanese efforts to soften Nacionalista opposition to the peace treaty.

44 Lazo, p. 257; NYT, 1 Jan., 11 Feb. 1952; Salvador P. Lopez interview, 23 Nov. 1983.

45 NYT, 6 Feb., 21 Mar. 1952; Meyer, p. 138.

46 NYT, 22–23 May, 14, 16 July 1952; Constantino, p. 79; Meyer, p. 211; Manila Bull's Eye, 17 Sept. 1951; n.d. 1952 memorandum, Vicente G. Sinco papers.