Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-hfldf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-02T13:27:37.462Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Disenchanted: Thailand's indigenisation of the American Cold War, seen through the experience of Gordon Young

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 April 2023

Abstract

Oliver Gordon Young was a third-generation American Baptist missionary who served with the Central Intelligence Agency during the 1950s and the United States Agency for International Development during the 1960s. He left Southeast Asia in 1974 disenchanted with his missions in the border areas of Thailand, Burma, and Laos. His ‘disenchantments’ with these two preeminent American Cold War agencies illustrated what the United States had increasingly failed to grasp, which was the ‘indigenising’ nature of the Cold War in Thailand. This essay examines Young's career in Thailand and bordering regions to better understand the limitations of American foreign policymaking establishments and their Cold War policies.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore, 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The first versions of this article were presented at a workshop on ‘Critical Perspectives on US–Southeast Asian Relations’, organised by Duncan McCargo at Columbia University as well as at the Center for Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2017, with an introduction by Dr Alfred W. McCoy furnished with his personal memories. The author would like to thank Dr McCargo, Professor McCoy, and many scholars who have shared their inspiring comments and kind encouragement for this research project. The author also wants to express her deepest gratitude to the late Oliver Gordon Young and his family for sharing their stories and heartfelt blessings. This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2022S1A5C2A01093243).

References

1 Hollinger, David A., Protestants abroad: How missionaries tried to change the world but changed America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), pp. 1, 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Bautista, Julius, ‘Christianity in Southeast Asia: Colonialism, nationalism and the caveats to conversion’, in The Oxford handbook of Christianity in Asia, ed. Wilfred, Felix (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 227Google Scholar.

3 Burns, Edward McNall, The American idea of mission: Concepts of national purpose and destiny (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1957), pp. 332Google Scholar.

4 Kwon, Heonik, The other Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), pp. 69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Phillips, Matthew, Thailand in the Cold War (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016)Google Scholar; Hajimu, Masuda, Cold War crucible: The Korean conflict and the postwar world (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Ang, Cheng Guan, Southeast Asia's Cold War: An interpretative history (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2018)Google Scholar.

6 Conroy-Krutz, Emily, Christian imperialism: Converting the world in the early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), pp. 5173CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Robert, Dana L., ‘The mother of modern missions’, Christian History and Biography 90 (2006): 22–4Google Scholar; Pierard, Richard V., ‘The man who gave the Bible to the Burmese’, Christian History and Biography 90 (2006): 1217Google Scholar; Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism, pp. 61–2.

8 Dates and names of mission stations are gathered from the individual biographies of the Young family members in the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society's archives (ABFMS Archives) in Atlanta, Georgia; ABFMS’ Baptist Missionary Magazine, Payap University Archives; Gordon Young's publications; and the author's interviews and correspondence with Gordon in 2011–15.

9 The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was founded in 1810 and the ABFMS was founded as the American Baptist Board of Foreign Missions in 1814.

10 ABFMS, ‘Abstract of proceedings of Executive Committee: The meeting of April’, Baptist Missionary Magazine 79, 8, Apr. 1899, p. 452.

11 Fridell, Elmer A., Baptists in Thailand and the Philippines (Philadelphia, PA: Judson, 1956), pp. 45–9Google Scholar.

12 Hollinger, Protestants abroad, p. 24.

13 Helping Hand was also the title of the Woman's Baptist Foreign Missionary Society's magazine, which was incorporated into ABFMS’ magazine Missions in 1910.

14 Pablo A. Deiros, ‘Cross & sword’, Christian History 11, 3 (1992): 31.

15 William R. Hutchison, Errand to the world: American Protestant thought and foreign missions (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 62–90.

16 Hutchison, Errand to the world, pp. 77–8; William A. Smalley, ‘What are indigenous churches like?’, Practical Anthropology os-6, 3 (1959): 135–9.

17 David J. Bosch, Transforming mission: Paradigm shifts in theology of mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991), pp. 294–5, 450.

18 Bautista, ‘Christianity in Southeast Asia’, p. 223.

19 Hutchison, Errand to the world, pp. 15–42; Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism, pp. 205–13.

20 Ruy O. Costa, ‘Introduction: Inculturation, indigenization, and contextualization’, in One faith, many cultures: Inculturation, indigenization, and contextualization, ed. Ruy O. Costa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis; Boston Theological Institute, 1988), pp. xii–iv.

21 Hollinger, Protestants abroad, pp. 59–93; Hutchison, Errand to the world, pp. 71–124; Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism, pp. 151–204.

22 Regarding the impacts of vernacularisation on localisation, see O.W. Wolters, History, culture, and region in Southeast Asian perspectives (Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University Press, 1999), pp. 41–67; Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), pp. 37–46.

23 Herbert R. Swanson, ‘The Kengtung question: Presbyterian mission and comity in eastern Burma, 1896–1913’, Journal of Presbyterian History 60, 1 (1982): 59. The ‘comity’ problem between the Presbyterian and the Baptist missions was taking place in other areas where these American Protestant missionaries were sent.

24 Swanson, ‘The Kengtung question’, pp. 67–8.

25 Harold Mason Young, ‘Letter to Foreign Secretary Dr. Joseph C. Robbins, 18 Jan. 1926’, ABFMS Archives. See also, Sai Aung Tun, History of the Shan State: From its origins to 1962 (Chiang Mai: Silkworm, 2009).

26 Anthony R. Walker, ‘Karen and Lahu: Ethnic affiliation or Baptists’ imagination?’, Journal of the Siam Society 96 (2008): 222.

27 Ruth Saada Young, ‘Interview by Herbert Swanson’, Chiang Mai, Feb.–Mar. 1980, Payap University Archives.

28 Randolph L. Howard, ‘Letter to Harold Young, 30 Sept. 1943’, ABFMS Archives.

29 Ruth Saada Young, ‘Letter to the ABFMS, 13 Mar. 1947’, ABFMS Archives.

30 Harold Mason Young, ‘Letter to Minister John E. Skoglund, 29 Mar. 1950’, ABFMS Archives.

31 The US Department of State sent a letter to the ABFMS on 11 Dec. 1946 concerning Harold Young's potential violation of the Nationality Act of 1940 after the Government of Burma Gazette announced his pending appointment as the Assistant Resident of the Shan State. Harold Young and his family's citizenship and national loyalty issues became the main topic of concern between the State Department and ABFMS until Ruth Saada Young confirmed that Harold would not accept the offer from the British government in her letter to the Mission Family in Rangoon, dated 25 Oct. 1949.

32 John E. Skoglund, ‘Letter to Dr. J.R. Wilson, 26 Nov. 1951’, ABFMS Archives.

33 Interview with Oliver Gordon Young, 9 Mar. 2012. See also, Oliver Gordon Young, Journey from Banna: My life, times, and adventures (Bloomington, IN: Xlibris, 2011), p. 173.

34 Young, Journey from Banna, pp. 174–5.

35 William J. Donovan was head of the Office of Strategic Services during the Second World War and has been regarded as a founding father of the CIA. He was US ambassador to Thailand from Aug. 1953 to Sept. 1954.

36 Young, Journey from Banna, pp. 183–4.

37 Interview, Oliver Gordon Young, 9 Mar. 2012. SEA Supply was a CIA cover organisation in Bangkok. Gordon characterised his mission as ‘covert’ while that of the SEA Supply as ‘overt’ CIA operations.

38 Interview, Oliver Gordon Young, 10 Mar. 2012. There are several accounts that confirm Harold Young was the person who created the zoo. For instance, ‘About us, History’, Chiang Mai Zoo, http://www.chiangmai.zoothailand.org/en/ewt_news.php?nid=183 (last accessed 3 Jan. 2022); Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Country and Subject Reader Series, ‘Thailand’, https://adst.org/Readers/Thailand.pdf (last accessed 3 Jan. 2022). These accounts do not say that Harold was a CIA agent.

39 Oliver Gordon Young, ‘Thailand's Mussuh Daeng’, Explorers Journal 40, 2 (1962): 58–65; Oliver Gordon Young, Tracks of an intruder (London: Souvenir, 1967). Gordon wrote numerous accounts of the Lahu people he had worked with without explicitly revealing his CIA work. ‘Mussuh’ is a Thai term for the Lahu.

40 In a document reporting on the Border Security Volunteer Team project published in 1971, Harold Young appeared as a ‘Former USOM Hilltribe Consultant’. John L. Champagne, ‘The Border Security Volunteer Team Program: An appraisal’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1971).

41 Interview, Oliver Gordon Young, 9 Mar. 2012.

42 Chester Holcombe, ‘The missionary enterprise in China’, Atlantic, Sept. 1906, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1906/09/the-missionary-enterprise-in-china/306000/ (last accessed 3 Jan. 2022).

43 Harold Mason Young, ‘Letter to Dr. Robbins, 25 Jun. 1934’, ABFMS Archives.

44 Gordon Young, Run for the mountains (Bloomington, IN: Xlibris, 2011), p. 34.

45 Public Safety Division (PSD), USOM to Thailand, ‘The Civic Action Program of the Border Patrol Police and the USOM Public Safety Division’ (Bangkok: PSD, USOM to Thailand, 1963), p. 2. My emphasis. Most of the internal documents USOM and USAID documents cited in this article are from the Thailand and ASEAN Information Center, Chulalongkorn University Central Library, Bangkok, and the USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC) online archives.

46 John Ranelagh, The Agency: The rise and decline of the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), pp. 17–19.

47 Ralph W. McGehee, Deadly deceits: My 25 years in the CIA (New York: Sheridan Square, 1983), p. xi.

48 Young, Journey from Banna, p. 194.

49 John K. Fairbank, ‘Assignment for the ‘70's’, American Historical Review 74, 3 (1969): 874.

50 Michael D. Shafer, Deadly paradigms: The failure of US counterinsurgency policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 104–14.

51 The English term ‘hill tribes’ is a literal translation of the Thai term chao khao or chao khao chao pa (people of the mountains and jungles). The Thai term came to be used since the 1880s. Scholarly debates around the term have increased since the 1960s and most recently, many use the term ‘highland minority’ instead of ‘hill tribes’ to diffuse the negative connotations of the original lowland Thai term.

52 Oliver Gordon Young, ‘The hill tribes of northern Thailand: A socio-ethnological report’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1961). The Siam Society published the report in a 2nd edition in 1962, with subsequent editions in 1966, 1969 and 1974. The author's preface in the 5th edition (1974) is slightly shorter than those in the previous editions and omitted his narrative about an Akha headman who had never met a Thai.

53 Young, The hill tribes of northern Thailand.

54 Interview, Oliver Gordon Young, 15 Mar. 2012.

55 Jian Chen, Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), pp. 49–84.

56 Thomas David Lobe, ‘US police assistance for the Third World’ (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1975), pp. 52–4.

57 Young, Journey from Banna, p. 229.

58 Alfred W. McCoy, The politics of heroin: CIA complicity in the global drug trade, rev. ed. (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2003), pp. 305–86. Thomas Fuller, ‘William Young, who helped U.S. organize Secret War in Laos, is dead at 76’, New York Times, 3 Apr. 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/04/world/asia/04young.html (last accessed 15 Dec. 2020).

59 US Department of State, Historical Division, American foreign policy current documents, 1962 (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1962), pp. 1091–3.

60 Ibid., p. 1095.

61 Young, Tracks of an intruder, p. 11.

62 Public Safety Division, ‘The Civic Action Program of the Border Patrol Police and the USOM Public Safety Division’ (Bangkok: PSD, USOM to Thailand, 1963), p. 2.

63 Robert M. Hearn, Thai government programs in refugee relocation and resettlement in northern Thailand (Auburn, NY: Thailand Books, 1974); Ralph Thaxton, ‘Modernization and counter-revolution in Thailand’, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 5, 4 (1973): 28–38; Jeffrey Race, ‘The war in northern Thailand’, Modern Asian Studies 8, 1 (1974): 85–112; McGehee, Deadly deceits, pp. 79–80.

64 Harold Mason Young, ‘Letter to friends in the ABFMS, 15 Jan. 1939’, ABFMS Archives.

65 Young, Journey from Banna, pp. 228–32.

66 Psychological Strategy Board, ‘U.S. psychological strategy with respect to the Thai peoples of Southeast Asia, 2 July 1953’, p. 5.

67 Lobe, ‘U.S. police assistance’, pp. 170–71.

68 Marvin J. Jones and Philip D. Batson, ‘A brief history of USOM support to the Thai National Police Department’ (Bangkok: Public Safety Division, USOM, 1969); United States Agency for International Development (USAID), ‘USOM in perspective’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1971); Rey M. Hill, ‘An overview of USAID participation in the Thailand programs of development and security, 1951 to 1973’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1973); USAID, ‘Aid Program in Thailand’ (Bangkok, 1968); Lobe, ‘U.S. police assistance’, pp. 330–31.

69 Public Safety Division, ‘The Civic Action Program of the Border Patrol Police’, p. 15.

70 Lobe, ‘U.S. police assistance’, pp. 334–5.

71 Sinae Hyun, ‘Mae Fah Luang: Princess Mother's Royal Project with the Thai Border Patrol Police during the Cold War’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 48, 2 (2017): 262–82.

72 Chai-anan Samudavanija, Kusuma Sanitwong Na Ayutthaya and Suchit Bunbongkarn, From armed suppression to political offensive (Bangkok: Institute of Security and International Studies, 1990), p. 49.

73 Edward B. Hanrahan, ‘An overview of insurgency and counterinsurgency in Thailand through 1973: A background survey for perspective and a guide to the literature’ (CHECO/CORONA Harvest Division, Operations Analysis Office: HQ PACAF, 1975), p. 57; Saiyud Kerdphol, The struggle for Thailand: Counter-insurgency, 1965–1985 (Bangkok: S. Research Center, 1986), pp. 29–33.

74 Raymond Coffey, ‘Thailand: Public Safety/ Border Patrol Police Remote Area Security Development: An Approach to Counterinsurgency by the Border Patrol Police’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1971), p. 4; Hill, ‘An overview of USAID participation in the Thailand Programs’, p. 6; Theodore J. Curtis, ‘A brief history of USOM support to the Thai National Police Department’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1973), p. 26. Hill reported the RASD lasted until 1971, but Curtis marked that the programme was terminated in the fiscal year 1970.

75 Curtis, ‘A brief history’, p. 4; USAID, Office of Public Safety, ‘Termination phase-out study, Public Safety Project, Thailand’ (Washington, DC: USAID, 1974), pp. 1, 104; Office of Program, USOM to Thailand, ‘Summary of U.S. economic AID to Thailand and selected statistical data’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1969); Research and Evaluation Staff, Program Office, USOM to Thailand, ‘RTG/USOM Economic and technical project summary FY 1951–1972’ (Bangkok: USOM, 1973).

76 McGehee, Deadly deceits, p. 95. See also, Lobe, ‘U.S. police assistance’; Thomas David Lobe, United States national security policy and aid to the Thailand Police (Denver: University of Denver, Graduate School of International Studies, 1977); Interview, Oliver Gordon Young, 10 Mar. 2012.

77 Young, Journey from Banna, pp. 234, 238.

78 McCoy, Alfred, ‘Subcontracting counterinsurgency: Academics in Thailand 1954–1970’, Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 3, 2 (1971): 5670CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 Young, Journey from Banna, p. 239.

80 Ibid., p. 282.

81 Hill categorised the twofold nature of USOM assistance to Thailand into Security, with Development Aspects (SDA), and Development, with Security Aspects (DSA), and pointed out the gradual domination of the SDA over the DSA in his report. Hill, ‘An overview of USAID participation in the Thailand programs’, p. 20.

82 Ibid., pp. 20–22.

83 Young, Journey from Banna, p. 258.

84 Ibid., p. 262; ‘Members of a congressional committee visit a South Vietnamese island for political prisoners: The tiger cages of Con Son’, LIFE Magazine, 17 July 1970, pp. 26–9; Sylvan Fox, ‘4 South Vietnamese describe torture in prison “tiger cage”’, New York Times, 3 Mar. 1973.

85 Young, Journey from Banna, pp. 282–3.

86 Winichakul, Thongchai, Moments of silence: The unforgetting of the October 6, 1976, massacre in Bangkok (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2020)Google Scholar.

87 McCoy, Alfred W., ‘America's secret war in Laos, 1955–1975’, in A companion to the Vietnam War, ed. B., Marilyn Young and Robert Buzzanco (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), pp. 283313Google Scholar.

88 United States, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Foreign and Military Intelligence, Book I: Final Report, Senate Report No. 94–755 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976).

89 Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, ‘Thailand’, p. 318.

90 Lobe, ‘U.S. police assistance’, p. 9.

91 Hollinger, Protestants abroad, p. 99.

92 Harold Mason Young, ‘Letter to Foreign Secretary Dr. Joseph C. Robbins, 28 Apr. 1926’.

93 Hollinger, Protestants abroad, pp. 63–86; Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism, p. 20; Adams, Daniel J., ‘From colonialism to world citizen: Changing patterns of Presbyterian mission’, American Presbyterians 65, 2 (1987): 147–56Google Scholar.

94 Hill, ‘An overview of USAID’, p. 19.

95 Although Gordon was not officially a Baptist missionary, he kept in touch with American Baptist missionaries and missionary circles in Thailand between 1950s and 1960s. For example, the American Baptist missionary newsletter Thailand Tattler reported on Gordon's lecture on the hill tribes in Nov. 1960, Gordon's and his father Harold's new positions in USOM in Sept. 1962; and Gordon and his family's resettlement in Chiang Mai in Jan. 1966. An almost complete series of Thailand Tattler is available in the Payap University Archives.

96 Hollinger, Protestants abroad, pp. 24–58, 187–213.

97 See Algie, Jim, Gray, Denis, Grossman, Nicholas, Hodson, Jeff, Horn, Robert and Hsu, Wesley, Americans in Thailand (Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2014)Google Scholar.