Post-Mongol States and Early Modern Chronology in Iran and China

¹ See Crossley, P. K.,’The Rulerships of China’, American Historical Review, 97, 5 (December 1992), pp. 1468–1483 ; Crossley, P. K., A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (Berkeley, 1999); Garthwaite, G. R., The Persians (Oxford, 2005), pp. 12–17 ; Newman, A. J., Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire (London, 2008), pp. 30–32 , 114, 148; Garthwaite, G. R., 'Transition: The End of the Old Order—Iran in the Eighteenth Century' in Morgan, D. O. and Reid, A., (eds.), The New Cambridge History of Islam : Volume 3 (Cambridge, 2010); Kasrael, M. S., 'Simultaneous Rulership, Governance and Legitimacy in Ancient Iran', Politics Quarterly: Journal of Faculty of Law and Political Science 40, 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 209–228 .

² See Beatrice Manz's section ‘The fifteenth century and the creation of new models’ in her contribution to this volume.

³ Fletcher, J. F. Jr., 'China and Central Asia', in Fairbank, John King and Ch'en, Ta-tuan, (eds.), The Chinese World Order Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge MA, 1968), pp. 214 , 353.

⁴ Kolodziejczyk, D., 'Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: The multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan', in Peter Fibiger, Bang and Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz, (eds.), Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 175–193 .

⁵ See also Kafadar, C., Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley, 1995), pp. 151–154 .

⁶ Mango, C., Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome (London, 1980; Phoenix, 1994, Darby PA 2005), pp. 192–193 , 219.

⁷ For reflection of these ideas in Ottoman imperial architecture, see Necipoglu, G., Ceremonial and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge MA, 1991).

⁸ See also Crossley, A Translucent Mirror, pp. 9-43.

⁹ Potts, D. T., Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era (Oxford, 2014).

¹⁰ Newman, A. J., Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722 (Edinburgh, 2013).

¹¹ Amanat, A., Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy , 1831-1896 (London, 1997).

¹² Similar arguments are to be found in Porter, A., Mobile Pastoralism and the Formation of Near Eastern Civilizations: Weaving Together Society (Cambridge, 2012).

¹³ Garthwaite, ‘Transition: The End of the Old Order.'

¹⁴ Babayan, K., Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran (Cambridge, MA, 2002).

¹⁵ Newman, Safavid Iran.

¹⁶ Zackery M. Heern, 'Usuli Shi'ism: The Emergence of an Islamic Reform Movement in Early Modern Iraq and Iran.' University of Utah, PhD. dissertation, 2011.

¹⁷ Babaie, S. , et al., Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran (London, 2004).

¹⁸ Lambton, A. K. S., 'The Tribal Resurgence and the Decline of the Bureaucracy in the Eighteenth Century', in Naff, Thomas and Owen, Roger, (eds.), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (Carbondale and Edwardsville IL, 1977), pp. 120–121 .

¹⁹ Ibid ., p. 6.

²⁰ Grunebaum, G. E. von, Medieval Islam: A study in Cultural Orientation (Chicago, 1961).

²¹ Crossley, A Translucent Mirror, pp. 44, 81, 105, 245.

²² Grunebaum, G. E. von, Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity (Los Angeles, 1962).

²³ Hodgson, M. G. S., The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (Chicago, 1971), pp. 3–4 .

²⁴ Crossley, A Translucent Mirror, pp. 224-230. This discussion is eliding other Buddhist personae within the Qing rulership, including the imperial consciousness transmitted through the Mahâkâla cult, for which see Rawski, E. S., The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley, 1998), pp. 251–258 and Crossley, A Translucent Mirror, pp. 218-241.

²⁵ The relationship between čakravartinism and patronage of the Tibetan hierarchs was itself a simultaneity. The čakravartin ideal was old, and usually linked to Mauryan king Asoka. In his own time he expressed himself in terms of solidarity with Buddhist community, but never characterised himself as their instrument, or as a monarch devoted— in his political person— to any individual religion. See Thapar, R., A History of India , Vol. 1. (London, 1966), pp. 70–75 . The lineage of Dalai Lamas was a novelty dating to 1588, when a ruler of eastern Mongolia instituted patronage of the Dalai Lamas as a fundament of his legitimacy as khaghan.

²⁶ Crossley, A Translucent Mirror, p. 31.

²⁷ For reflections of these ideas in the treatment of other early modern monarchs see also Rodriguez-Salgado, M., The Changing Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority 1551-1559 (Cambridge and London, 1988); Necipoglu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power; Burke, P., The Fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven, 1992); Frye, S., Elizabeth I: The Competition for Representation (Oxford, 1993); Corns, T. N., The Royal Image : Representations of Charles I (Cambridge and London, 1999); Watkins, J., Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (New York and Cambridge, 2002).