Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 July 2015
These days the rule of law is often invoked in Burma. Although its contemporary salience is partly a consequence of recent global trends, the rule of law also has lineages in the country's colonial and early post-colonial periods. To examine these lineages, this article distinguishes between its procedural and substantive conceptions. Whereas the latter conception recognizes the subjects of law as freely associating equals, the former is compatible with a range of political practices, including those that are undemocratic. The records of decisions in criminal cases before Burma's superior courts during the period of British domination suggest that some semblance of procedural rule of law did exist, and that it was compatible with the rule of colonial difference. Out of this procedural rule of law a nascent, substantive type emerged during the early years of democratic life in the post-colony, before the onset of military dictatorship. The article concludes that more effort to structure interpretations of the rule of law in history might better enable discussion about the concept's continued relevance.
Thank you to Craig Reynolds and Terry Halliday for their comments on versions of this article, as well as to Bronwen Douglas, and to colleagues in the Pacific and Asian History seminar series at the Australian National University, for questions and suggestions in response to a talk on this topic. Special thanks to Saowapha Viravong and all the staff at the National Library of Australia, and to Thant Thaw Kaung and Ma Win Win at the Myanmar Book Centre, for their help in finding and acquiring materials on which the article draws. Lastly, thank you to the article's anonymous reviewers for their thorough comments, which gave me the opportunity to rethink arguments, re-examine sources, and explore new material with which to clarify and amplify its contents.
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58 King-Emperor v. Nga Po, 5 LBR 72.
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60 Nga Po Gaung v. King-Emperor, (1897–1901) 1 UBR 96.
61 Nga Po Tein v. King-Emperor, (1910–13) UBR 149.
62 U Ba Thein & Another v. King-Emperor, 8 Ran. 372.
63 Ba Yin v. King-Emperor, 7 Ran. 759.
64 Mohamed Hayet Mulla v. King-Emperor, 7 Ran. 370.
65 Maung Pu v. Maung Chit Pyu, 5 Ran. 129.
66 Nga Hla U v. King-Emperor, 3 Ran. 139; K. M. Subbaya Naidu v. King-Emperor, 7 Ran. 470.
67 Maung Thwe v. King-Emperor, 3 Ran. 74.
68 Nga Po Chon v. King-Emperor, 4 Ran. 356; Nga U Khine & Others v. King-Emperor, 13 Ran. 1; King-Emperor v. Nga Lun Thuong, 13 Ran. 570 FB.
69 Nga Thet U v. King-Emperor, 2 LBR 115.
70 Hnin Yin (King-Emperor) v. Than Pe, 9 LBR 92.
71 Nga Po Thet v. Queen-Empress, 1 LBR 29; Tha Hmu v. King-Emperor, 2 LBR 206.
72 Shwe Bwin v. King-Emperor, 2 LBR 270.
73 King-Emperor v. Nga Khaing & One, 6 Ran. 531.
74 Tambi v. Appalsawmy (King-Emperor), 9 LBR 208.
75 King-Emperor v. Channing Arnold, 6 LBR 129 FB.
76 King-Emperor v. Kyan Baw, 2 LBR 239.
77 Nga Po Shein & Two Others v. King-Emperor, (1910–13) UBR 152.
78 Nga San Myin v. King-Emperor, (1910–13) UBR 123.
79 H. M. Eusoof & Abdul Khudus v. King-Emperor, 11 LBR 73.
80 King-Emperor v. Po Thin Gyi, 7 Ran. 96.
81 King-Emperor v. Myat Aung, 4 LBR 135.
82 King-Emperor v. Ramara, 4 LBR 103.
83 King-Emperor v. Taik Pyu & Nga Thaik, 5 LBR 21.
84 King-Emperor v. Po Thin, 7 LBR 62.
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94 King-Emperor v. Po Ni & Others, 3 LBR 116.
95 Crown v. Nga Kyauk Lon, 1 LBR 75.
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98 Mi Hauk v. King-Emperor, 4 LBR 121, 122.
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100 Queen-Empress v. Nga Lu Gyi & 7 Others, 1 LBR 49, 50.
101 Nga Po Hmi v. Queen-Empress, (1897–1901) 1 UBR 29.
102 Tan Sein (a) Maung Saing v. Crown, 1 LBR 173.
103 V. S. M. Moideen Brothers v. Eng Thaung & Co., 9 LBR 45, 47.
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121 Nga Aung Dwe v. Queen-Empress, (1892–96) 1 UBR 229; Queen-Empress v. Nga Chit Kyu, (1897–1901) 1 UBR 325.
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128 Nga Po Thaw v. King-Emperor, (1910–13) UBR 155.
129 Nga Po Thaw, 155.
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138 On the classing of the two as ‘reservations’ to the rule of law, see Halliday and Karpik, ‘Political Liberalism in the British Post-Colony’, pp. 4, 12–13.
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142 The Union of Burma (Continued Observance of Laws) Order, 1948, and the Union Judiciary Act, 1948, gave effect to pre-existing laws.
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146 U Htwe (a) A. E. Madari v. U Tun Ohn & One, 1948 BLR (SC) 541, 552.
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148 Maung Maung (1969). Burma and General Ne Win, Religious Affairs Department, Rangoon, pp. 209–210Google Scholar.
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150 Saw Maung Dauk cited in Tekkathoe Myat Thu (2012). Parliamentary Sights, Sarpay Beikman Press, Yangon, p. 51 (in Burmese)Google Scholar.
151 Art. 25(1), Constitution of the Union of Burma, 1947.
152 Zan, Myint (2000). Judicial Independence in Burma: Constitutional History, Actual Practice and Future Prospects, Southern Cross University Law Review, 4, pp. 22–24Google Scholar. Tinker, The Union of Burma, p. 29.
153 U Htwe, 560–561. Both Ba U and E Maung were members of the constitution-drafting committee. Maung Maung, Burma's Constitution, Appendix V. Maung Maung's monograph, while offering a comprehensive summation of the constitution's contents, contains only a short section on its drafting. For a more detailed account of the constitutional drafting process and participants, see Win, U Kyaw, Han, U Mya and Hlaing, U Thein (1990). National Race Affairs and the 1947 Constitution, 2 vols, Universities PressGoogle Scholar, Yangon, Vol. 2, Chapters 8–10 (in Burmese).
154 V. E. Rm. N. Rm. Kasi Viswanathan Chettyar v. Official Assignee & One, 1958 BLR (SC) 74.
155 Cheesman, N., ‘The Incongruous Return of Habeas Corpus to Myanmar’, in Cheesman, N., Skidmore, M. and Wilson, T. (2010). Ruling Myanmar: From Cyclone Nargis to National Elections, ISEAS, Singapore, p. 95CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Crouch, M., ‘The Common Law and Constitutional Writs: Prospects for Accountability in Myanmar’, in Crouch and Lindsey, Law, Society and Transition in Myanmar, pp. 141–157.
156 Bo San Lin v. Commissioner of Police & One, 1948 BLR (SC) 372.
157 Maung Maung, Burma's Constitution, p. 99.
158 Ma Lone v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 8, 9.
159 Tinker, The Union of Burma, p. 142.
160 Hansard (1954). Chamber of Deputies, Union Parliament, Government of the Union of Burma, Rangoon, Vol. 3, pp. 104–109 (in Burmese).
161 Lim Lyan Hwat (a) Lim Sway Gaung/Lim Kwin Kee (a) Htwa Kong (a) Htwa Tong v. The Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs & One/ The Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs & One, 1960 BLR (SC) 128, 129.
162 As discussed in Christian, W. (1951). Burma's New Constitution and Supreme Court, Tulane Law Review, 26:1, pp. 49–56.
163 Daw Aye Nyunt v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 5, 7.
164 Pakiya Ammal v. Deputy Commissioner, Hanthawaddy & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 35.
165 Ma Mya Khin v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1950 BLR (SC) 8.
166 Ma Khin Than v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 13, 17.
167 Ma Than Sint v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 1.
168 Ma Ahmar v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 39.
169 Bo Aye Ko v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & 2 Others, 1950 BLR (SC) 181.
170 U Zan v. Deputy Commissioner, Insein & Another, 1951 BLR (SC) 188; Thet Tun v. Deputy Commissioner, Shwebo & Another, 1952 BLR (SC) 33.
171 Ah Nywe v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & Another, 1948 BLR (SC) 737, 740.
172 Lee Kyin Su (a) U Su v. Commissioner of Excise & 3 Others, 1957 BLR (SC) 5, 9.
173 Maung Ant Bwe & One v. Union of Burma, 1948 BLR (HC) 863; Union of Burma v. Ah Shin & 2 Others, 1955 BLR (HC) 317; U Ba Aye & 3 Others v. Union of Burma, 1958 BLR (HC) 548; Bishu (a) Ma Kyin Nu v. Union of Burma, 1953 BLR (HC) 110 (in Burmese).
174 Hasan Ali v. Secretary, Ministry of Immigration & National Registration & One, 1959 BLR (SC) 187.
175 Sri Sawarmal v. Union of Burma (U Thein Maung), 1954 BLR (HC) 331.
176 Courts General Letter No. 4/1956, Supreme Court, Rangoon, 20 January 1956 (in Burmese).
177 Maung Kyaw Aye v. Union of Burma, 1953 BLR (HC) 114.
178 B. K. Halder v. S. Kr. Chelliah Pillay & Others, 1952 BLR (HC) 340.
179 T. S. Mohamed & One v. Union of Burma, 1953 BLR (HC) 107.
180 U Ba Din v. Union of Burma, 1956 BLR (HC) 166.
181 Khaw Taw & One v. Union of Burma, 1948 BLR (HC) 310; Maung Aye Maung v. Union of Burma, 1956 BLR (HC) 273.
182 Sobika Rahman v. Union of Burma, 1952 BLR (HC) 385.
183 Ali Meah v. Union of Burma, 1954 BLR (SC) 65.
184 U Ba Khin v. Union of Burma, 1954 BLR (HC) 191.
185 Maung Nyi & One v. Union of Burma, 1952 BLR (HC) 282.
186 Only in 1957–58 did the government initiate inquiries, and bring one group of paramilitaries to court after a particularly notorious and gruesome episode, discussed in Callahan, M. P., ‘The Sinking Schooner: Murder and the State in Independent Burma, 1948–58’, in Trocki, C. A. (1998). Gangsters, Democracy, and the State in Southeast Asia, Cornell Southeast Asia Program, New York, pp. 17–38Google Scholar. The case was reported as Chit Hlaing, Htun Waing, Thein Aung & 19 v. Union of Burma, 1958 BLR (HC) 582 (in Burmese and English).
187 Maung Hla Gyaw v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1948 BLR (SC) 764. On the charges brought against the alleged plotters and their subsequent sentences, see Maung Maung (1962). A Trial in Burma: The Assassination of Aung San, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague.
188 Daw Mya Tin v. Commissioner of Police, Rangoon & One, 1949 BLR (SC) 82.
189 U Ba Yi & 8 Others v. Officer-in-Charge of Jail, Yamethin, 1950 BLR (SC) 130.
190 Maung Kyaw Aye & 6 v. Taunggoo District Commissioner & Another, 1957 BLR (SC) 49 (in Burmese).
191 Maung Tin Aye v. District Commissioner, Pakokku & One, 1957 BLR (SC) 17 (in Burmese).
192 Maung Maung (1962). Lawyers and Legal Education in Burma, Journal of International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 11:1, p. 285.
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196 Government of the Union of Burma (1960). Is Trust Vindicated?, Director of Information, Rangoon, p. 62.
197 See, for instance, Editor, ‘Parliamentary Democracy’, The Guardian, 6 October 1959; U Hla Aung (1960). A Republic and the Rule of Law, Burma Law Institute Journal, 2:1, p. 2; U Tin, ‘The Rule of Law’, The Guardian, 1–2 June 1960, pp. 31–32.
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199 U Nu (1959). Address Given by AFPFL (Clean) Chairman U Nu at the 69th May Day Celebration, News and Information Department, AFPFL (Clean), pp. 10–20 (in Burmese).
200 Criminal Law (Temporary Provisions) Act, No. 21/58, section 2.
201 Government of the Union of Burma (1959). Excerpts from the Record of the Convention of Security Councils Held at the Armed Forces Convocation Hall, Rangoon on 21, 22, and 23 April 1959, Government Printing and Stationery, Rangoon, p. 53 (in Burmese).
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204 Lim Lyan Hwat, 132.
205 Mahmud, T. (1993). Praetorianism and Common Law in Post-Colonial Settings: Judicial Responses to Constitutional Breakdowns in Pakistan, Utah Law Review, 4, pp. 1234–1242Google Scholar; Newberg, P. R. (1995). Judging the State: Courts and Constitutional Politics in Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 57–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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208 Upham, F. K., ‘The Illusory Promise of the Rule of Law’, in A. Sajó (2004). Human Rights with Modesty: The Problem of Universalism, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden and Boston, p. 280. See also Darian-Smith, E. (2008). Precedents of Injustice: Thinking About History in Law and Society Scholarship, Studies in Law, Politics, and Society, 41, p. 62Google Scholar.
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210 Roque and Wagner, ‘Introduction’, pp. 7, 9.
211 Roque and Wagner, ‘Introduction’, p. 14.
212 As discussed in Cheesman, What Does the Rule of Law Have to Do with Democratisation (in Myanmar)?
