¹ For detailed studies, see Hannaford, Ivan, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Washington, DC, 1996)Google Scholar , Marks, Jonathan, Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History (New York, 1995)Google Scholar , and Smedley, Audrey, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder, CO, 1999)Google Scholar.

² Anthony Appiah points to the lack of genetic evidence to support the concept of race, in ‘The uncompleted argument: Du Bois and the illusion of race’, in ‘Race,’ Writing, and Difference, ed. Gates, Henry Louis Jr, (Chicago, 1986), 21–37Google Scholar.

3 See Smedley, Audrey, ‘Race’, The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 18 Macropaedia (Chicago, 2002), 844–54, 844Google Scholar.

4 Even in the eighteenth century it was necessary for candidates to ‘prove a nobility of four races or descents’ for some knighthoods. Chambers Cyclopaedia, 1727– 1, cited under the entry ‘Race’, in The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1933), Vol. 8Google Scholar.

5 Bernasconi, Robert, ‘Who invented the concept of race?’, in Race, ed. Bernasconi, Robert (Oxford, 2001), 11–36Google Scholar . The theory of polygenesis, of course, challenges the biblical account of creation. As recently as October 200 a stormy debate was unleased when Australian anthropologists claimed to have discovered bones of a hitherto unkown human species on the Indonesian island of Flores (see Dalton, Rex, ‘Little lady of Flores forces rethink of human evolution’, Nature (27 Oct. 2004 )Google Scholar , pub. online at www.nature.com/news/2004/041025/full/ 311029a.html – accessed 18 Feb. 200 ). It was not long, however, before a strong counterclaim was being made that Homo floresiensis was neither a new species nor a sub-species, but merely a pygmy version of Homo sapiens (see Vidal, John, ‘Bones of contention’, The Guardian, Life supplement (13 Jan. 2005), 4–6)Google Scholar.

6 Samson Agonistes (1671), line 1100.

7 His views are in Part 2 of Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1785), published just before the Kant essay; see Bernasconi, , Race, 1 and 28Google Scholar.

8 Foucault, Michel, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York, 1970)Google Scholar , orig. pub. as Les Mots et les choses (Paris, 1966), 1Google Scholar.

9 See Smedley, , ‘Race’, 847Google Scholar.

10 Pasler, Jann, ‘The utility of musical instruments in the racial and colonial agendas of late nineteenth-century France’, Journal of the Royal Musical Association 129/1 (2004): 24–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11 See Bolt, Christine, ‘Race and the Victorians’, in British Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Eldridge, C.C. (London, 1984), 126–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 See Levine, Lawrence W., Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, MA, 1988)Google Scholar.

13 See Spurr, David, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham, 1993), 65Google Scholar.

14 See Ibid., 66–7.

15 See Stepan, Nancy, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960 (London, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 See Boas, Franz, Race, Language and Culture (New York, 1940)Google Scholar.

17 Ethnicity returned as an important concept for debate following the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s in the USA, especially in the work of Frederick Barth, who argued in Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (1969) that the way a group determined whom to include or exclude was more important than their having a distinctive culture. It offered an explanation of why some groups kept an ethnic identity while sharing an American culture. However, as Sollors, Werner has commented, ‘it is still widespread practice to define ethnicity as otherness’. ‘Who Is Ethnic?’, in Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York, 1986)Google Scholar , excerpted in The Post-colonial Studies Reader, ed. Ashcroft, Bill, Griffiths, Gareth, and Tiffin, Helen (London, 1995), 219–22, 219Google Scholar.

18 Gellner, Ernest, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford, 1983), 1.Google Scholar

19 Ibid., 6.

20 See Mach, Zdzislaw, ‘National anthems: the case of Chopin as a national composer’, in Ethnicity, Identity and Music: The Musical Construction of Place, ed. Stokes, Martin (Oxford, 1994), 61–70Google Scholar.

21 Bhabha, Homi K., ‘Signs taken for wonders’, in The Location of Culture (London, 1994), 102–22, 111.Google Scholar

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23 Young, Robert J.C., Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London, 1995)Google Scholar.

24 See Einstein, Alfred, Music in the Romantic Era (London, 1947), 296Google Scholar.

25 Born, Georgina and Hesmondhalgh, David, eds, Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music (Berkeley, CA, 2000), 24–7.Google Scholar

26 Frith, Simon, ‘The discourse of world music’, in Western Music and Its Others, ed. Born, and Hesmondhalgh, , 305–22, 311.Google Scholar

27 Radano, Ronald and Bohlman, Philip V., eds, Music and the Racial Imagination (Chicago, 2000), 30–31Google Scholar . Radano and Bohlman still have a tendency to hypostasize race: they state ‘music is a domain that different races, depending on interpretation and case, can potentially share’ (p. 8) and, in distinguishing ethnicity from race as something ‘constructed through choice and the exercising of options’, they imply that race is something about which there is no choice – despite their acknowledgement that it only exists as a ‘shifting matrix of ideological constructions of difference’ within the imagination (p.5). This sits oddly with their countless references to race as a discursive construct and their general awareness of the danger of essentializing race.

28 Gilroy, Paul, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London, 1993), 2Google Scholar . He coined the term ‘black Atlantic’ to avoid respect for national boundaries and to suggest, instead, diasporic multiplicity and the idea of ‘the ship in motion’ as a microcultural system and transporter of cultural artefacts.

29 Wagner, Richard, ‘Das Judentum in Musik’ (1850)Google Scholar . Orig. pub. in Franz Brendel's Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, 3 & 6 Sep., under pseudonym Karl Freigedank [Karl Freethought] (revd 1869). ‘Judaism in Music’, in Richard Wagner: Stories and Essays, ed. Osborne, Charles (London, 1973), 23–39, 25Google Scholar.

30 Wagner, Richard, ‘Was ist Deutsch?’, written 1865, pub. in Bayreuther Blätter, Feb. 1878)Google Scholar , in Richard Wagner, ed. Osborne, , as ‘What is German?’, 40–55,50–51Google Scholar .

31 In his reports ‘The opéra lies dying’ and ‘Farewell performances’, in the Dresden, Abendzeitung, Paris (23 Feb. and 6 Apr. 1841)Google Scholar . See Wagner Writes from Paris: Stories, Essays, and Articles by the Young Composer, ed. and trans. Jacobs, Robert L. and Skelton, Geoffrey (London, 1973), 111 and 11.Google Scholar I am grateful to Jonathan Bellman for directing me towards this information.

32 Weiner, Marc A., Richard Wagner and the Anti-Semitic Imagination (Lincoln, 1995).Google Scholar

33 Wagner wrote in a letter that the high tessitura he had given Beckmesser was to convey ‘an impassioned, screeching tone of voice’. Selected Letters of Richard Wagner, trans. Spencer, Stewart and Millington, Barry (London, 1987), 222Google Scholar , quoted in Millington, Barry, ‘Nuremberg trial: is there anti-Semitism in Die Meistersinger?’, Cambridge Opera Journal 3/3 (1991): 247–60, 257CrossRefGoogle Scholar , and Weiner, , Richard Wagner, 118Google Scholar .

34 Wagner, , ‘Judaism in Music’, 31–2Google Scholar .

35 Wagner is apparently unaware of Klezmer: ‘The only musical expression his own people can offer the Jewish composer is the ceremonial music of their worship of Jehovah.’ Ibid., 32.

36 Wagner's, immersion in völkisch ideology is evident as early as ‘Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft’ of 1849Google Scholar .

37 See Weiner, , Richard Wagner, 123Google Scholar .

38 Adorno, Theodor, In Search of Wagner, trans. Livingstone, Rodney (London, 1981), 23Google Scholar . Orig. pub. as Versuch über Wagner (Frankfurt am Main, 19 2). He cites ‘gold-grabbing Alberich’ and ‘locquacious Mime’.

39 Millington, , ‘Nuremberg Trial’, 252–4Google Scholar .

40 Wagner, , ‘Judaism in Music’, 32Google Scholar .

41 ‘The rhythms and melismata of the synagogue chant dominate his musical imagination in exactly the same way that instinctive knowledge of the modes and rhythms of our folk songs and dances shaped the creation of our vocal and instrumental music.’ Ibid., 33. It should be pointed out that these melismas do have a purpose in lending emphasis to holy words or the vocables that substitute for them.

42 Voss, Egon, Studien zur Instrumentalmusik Richard Wagners (Regensburg, 1970), 173–4Google Scholar , quoted (and translated) in Weiner, , Richard Wagner, 124Google Scholar .

43 Bhabha, Homi K., ‘The other question: difference, dissemination and the discourse of colonialism’, in Literature, Politics and Theory, ed. Barker, Frances (London, 1986), 148–72.Google Scholar

44 It was not only in music that the Celt was thought to reveal racial characteristics: Grant Allen saw the decorative side of Celtic art as a racial propensity, and Nigel Macneill attributed a perceived lack of Celtic grace of style in Sutherlandshire bard Rob Donn to the fact that the ‘Teutonic element brought in by the Norse is stronger in the North’. Macneill, Nigel, The Literature of the Highlanders: Race, Language, Literature, Poetry and Music (Stirling, 2nd edn 1929, orig. pub. 1892), 392Google Scholar . Macneill cites Grant Allen’s article ‘The Celt in English art’, but without providing a source, 524–5.

45 Quoted in Pasler, , ‘The utility of musical instruments’, 26Google Scholar .

46 Webb, F. Gilbert, ‘The foundations of national music’, Proceedings of the Musical Association, 17th session, 1890–91 (London, 1891), 113–31Google Scholar , plus discussion, 132–5, 122.

47 Ibid., 122.

48 Ibid., 122.

49 Ibid., discussion, 133.

50 Ibid., 123.

51 Words by Ernst Moritz Arndt (1813), set to music by Gustav Reichardt in 1825.

52 Webb, , ‘Foundations’, 123Google Scholar .

53 Ibid., 124.

54 Ibid., 125.

55 Arnold, Matthew, On the Study of Celtic Literature (London, 1900), 75Google Scholar . Orig. pub. 1867).

56 Ibid., 112. One is reminded of a remark made in an interview by comedian John Cleese; he declared that only an English person feels the need to say ‘sorry’ before asking someone to pass the salt at dinner.

57 Arnold, , On the Study of Celtic Literature, 79–80.Google Scholar

58 Ibid., 8.

59 Ibid., 85.

60 Ibid., 86–7.

61 Ibid., 136.

62 Cook, Nicola, Viking Genetics Survey Results, www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_03.shtml (accessed 6 Nov. 2004).Google Scholar

63 Webb, , ‘Foundations’, 129.Google Scholar

64 Ibid., 130.

65 Ibid., discussion, 133.

66 Liszt, , The Gipsy in Music, trans. Evans, Edwin (1881Google Scholar ; reprinted London, 1960), 301. Originally published as Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie (1859).

67 Ibid., 272.

68 Ibid., 273.

69 Young, Robert J.C., Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London, 1995).Google Scholar

70 Liszt, , The Gipsy in Music, 287.Google Scholar

71 Ibid., 324–5.

72 See Bartók, Béla, Essays, ed. Suchoff, Benjamin (London, 1976), 29, 206Google Scholar , and Trumpener, Katie, ‘Béla Bartók and the rise of comparative ethnomusicology: nationalism, race purity, and the legacy of the Austro-Hungarian empire’, in Music and the Racial Imagination, ed. Radano, and Bohlman, ,403–34, 10–12Google Scholar .

73 Wagner, , ‘What is German?’,47Google Scholar . This fits the stereotype of the ‘rapacious Jew’, which is how he describes Meyerbeer in a letter to his niece Franziska Wagner, Zurich, 13 October 18 2, in Ellis, William Ashton, Family Letters of Richard Wagner, introduction and notes by John Deathridge (London, 1991), 184–7, 185Google Scholar .

74 Wagner, , ‘Judaism in Music’, 36Google Scholar .

75 Trumpener, , ‘Béla Bartók’,406Google Scholar . Derision for Jewish-Gypsy bands was not new. Wagner referred scornfully to Brahms as ‘jüdischen Czardasausspieler’; see Bellman, Jonathan, ‘“Noble Pathways of the National”: C19 Views of National Music and Their C20 Descendants’, Pendragon Review, 1/2 (2001):50Google Scholar.

76 Brown, Julie, ‘Bartók, the Gypsies, and hybridity in music’, in Western Music and Its Others, ed. Born, and Hesmondhalgh, , 119– 2Google Scholar , see 120–1 and 127–32.

77 Nettl, Bruno, Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1973), 116Google Scholar ; quoted in Chapman, Malcolm, ‘Thoughts on Celtic Music’, in Ethnicity, ed. Stokes, , 29–44,43Google Scholar .

78 Bois, W.E.B. Du, The Souls of Black Folk (New York, 1965)Google Scholar , see especially Chapter 14. Orig. pub. 1903, also online pub. at www.bartleby.com [1999]. See also the discussion of Du Bois' musical arguments in Evans, Nicholas M., Writing Jazz: Race, Nationalism, and Modern Culture in the 1920s (New York, 2000), 63–73Google Scholar.

79 Hurston, Zora Neale, ‘The characteristics of Negro expression’, in Negro, ed. Cunard, Nancy (New York, 1970), 31Google Scholar . Orig. pub. 1933; quoted in Gilroy, Paul, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London, 1993), 92Google Scholar.

80 Re-released on Fisk University Jubilee Singers, Vol. 1 (1909–1911)Google Scholar , Document Records, DOCD- 33 (1997), track 5.

81 John Knox Bokwe, a South African black composer, presents another example of this kind of problem in his ‘Plea for Africa’ of c. 189. Towards the end of the verse he writes a Bn passing note of a minim's duration in the bass against a Bf chord. Because we are so familiar with this kind of dissonance in jazz and blues, we may hear it as a marker of cultural difference within what sounds, for the most part, like a Victorian nonconformist sacred song for soloist and choir. Grant E. Olwage, however, is convinced it is a mistake Bokwe would have wished to correct: ‘Music and Post/Colonialism: The Dialectics of Choral Culture on a South African Frontier’ (PhD diss., Rhodes University, 2003)Google Scholar .

82 Gilroy, , The Black Atlantic, 1Google Scholar . The concept of ‘double consciousness’ is clearly indebted to Du Bois' thoughts on the ‘two-ness’ of the African American; see The Souls of Black Folk, 3–4.

83 See Gates, Henry Louis Jr, The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (New York, 1987)Google Scholar , and Floyd, Samuel A. Jr, ‘Ring shout! Literary studies, historical studies, and black music inquiry’, in Signifyin(g), Sanctifyin', and Slam Dunking, ed. Caponi, Gena Dagel (Amherst, MA, 1991), 135–56Google Scholar (reprinted from Black Music Research Journal, 11/2 [1991], 26 -88).

84 ‘“I’m an Indian too:” creating Native American identities in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century music’, in The Exotic in Western Music, ed. Bellman, Jonathan (Boston, 1998), 218–57, 231Google Scholar . Pisani's informative essay is largely concerned with concert music. He presents a summary of ‘the standard language for the musical depiction of Indians’ on pages 229–30.

85 This music has come to be known as waila, and can be heard played by the Native American band Southern Scratch on their album Em-we-hejed (‘For all of you’), Canyon Records, CR-8097.

86 Some examples may be mentioned: the country style of Bill Miller, the jazzinfluenced wooden flautist R. Carlos Nakai, the Cajun style of Redbone, the folky singer-guitarist Sharon Burch, the rappers WithOut Rezervation, the gospel-like style of Walela, the Latin-influenced trio Burning Sky, and the mixture of pop, country and traditional in the songs written and performed by the internationally esteemed Joanne Shenandoah.

87 Russell, Tony, ‘Obituary: Ray Charles’, The Guardian (Sat. 12 Jun. 2004): 27Google Scholar . Charles even showed an interest in country music, rare for black musicians.

88 March, Ivan, ‘Intimate, inimitable’, The Gramophone 82 (Jul. 2004): 63Google Scholar .

89 Aniruddh Patel, speaking at the Acoustical Society of America meeting at the Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, 19 Nov. 2004. Quoted in Sample, Ian, ‘Great composers scored on language’, The Guardian (Sat., 20 Nov. 2004): 13Google Scholar.

90 See Berliner, Wendy, ‘Not crawling but dancing’, Education Guardian (16 Nov. 2004): 6–7, 6Google Scholar . The research took place at the Howden Sure Start Centre, Wallsend, North Tyneside.

91 See Stokes's, discussion of the importance of radio in Afghanistan and Turkey, Ethnicity, 11–12Google Scholar.

92 Stokes, , Ethnicity, 8–10Google Scholar . See also The Invention of Tradition, ed. Hobsbawm, Eric and Ranger, Terence (Cambridge, 1983)Google Scholar .

93 Hall, Stuart, ‘New ethnicities’, Black Film, British Cinema, ICA Documents 7 (London, 1989)Google Scholar , excerpted in Ashcroft, et al. , Post-colonial Studies Reader, 223–7, 226Google Scholar . Two years before Hall's essay, Paul Gilroy had stressed the necessity of studying the relation between the terms ‘race’ and ‘class’ in There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack (London, 2002)Google Scholar . Orig. pub. London, 1987.

94 More recently, filmmaker Gurinder Chadha, in discussing Bend It Like Beckham and Bride and Prejudice, has said, ‘My work is about not making race matter, but making people matter’. Quoted in Armstrong, Stephen, ‘The Bennets from Amritsar’, The Sunday Times, Culture (18 Jul. 2004): 6–7, 7Google Scholar .

95 Oliver, Paul, ed., Black Music in Britain (Milton Keynes, 1990)Google Scholar .

96 Ethnic Group Statistics: A Guide for the Collection and Classification of Ethnicity Data (London, 2004)Google Scholar .

97 Quoted in Elliot, John and Robertson, David, ‘English, Scots and Welsh are now officially ethnic’, The Sunday Times (11 Jan. 2004): 7Google Scholar .

98 See Gilroy, Paul, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture Beyond the Color Line (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 32–4Google Scholar .

99 The description ‘Asian’ has become disliked by some British Asians who would prefer to be identified by religion (for example, as ‘British Hindu’ or ‘British Sikh’). This was a matter explored in ‘Don't call me Asian: cultural differences’, BBC Radio (16 Jan. 2005). Several speakers said that they wished to avoid being mistaken for Muslims.

100 Arlridge, John, ‘Forget black, forget white. The future is Generation EA’, The Observer ( Jan. 2004): 19Google Scholar .

101 See Hollinger, David A., Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York, 1995)Google Scholar , for pioneering exposition of the argument that ethnicity is now a matter of affiliation and borders between ethnicities no longer hold.

102 Hall, , ‘New ethnicities’, 226–7.Google Scholar

103 Said, Edward, Culture and Imperialism (London, 1994),407Google Scholar .

104 Stokes, , Ethnicity, 6Google Scholar .

105 Chapman, Malcolm, ‘Thoughts on Celtic music’, 39Google Scholar . For a full-length study, see the same author's The Celts: The Construction of a Myth (London, 1992)Google Scholar .

106 Chapman, , ‘Thoughts on Celtic music’, 39Google Scholar .

107 See Grae, Paul de, Traditional Irish Guitar (Cork, 1996)Google Scholar .

108 Information given without source in Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John, Wittgenstein's Poker: The Story of a Ten-Minute Argument Between Two Great Philosophers (London, 2001), 108Google Scholar .

109 Gilroy, , Against Race, 13Google Scholar .

110 Fanon, Frantz, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Markmann, Charles Lam (New York, 1967)Google Scholar . Orig. pub. as Peau noir, masques blancs (Paris, 1952)Google Scholar .