Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-zzh7m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T18:26:01.789Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mammals of the Guinea–Congo rain forest

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 December 2011

D. C. D. Happold
D. C. D. Happold
Affiliation:
Division of Botany and Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 0200, Australia
Get access

Synopsis

The species composition, and the number of species of mammals, in the Guinea–Congo rain forests varies with locality. The highest species richness (up to 130 species) is found in parts of the West Central and East Central rain forest regions, and the lowest richness occurs in the Western Region and on the periphery of the rain forest zone. Rodents and bats contribute the greatest number of species (about 25% each), with lesser numbers of primates, duikers, and small insectivores; the relative numbers within each order is similar in all localities regardless of the composition and total numbers of species. The geographical distribution of each species is due to the alternating periods of forest fragmentation and expansion in the past, and the species-specific response to these environmental changes. There are about equal numbers of arboreal (30%), terrestrial (35%) and aerial (27%) species, each species within these categories having very specific habitat requirements within the forest. Most rain forest mammals are either frugivores (36%) or insectivores (37%): monkeys are mainly arboreal frugivores and folivores, and most prosimians are arboreal insectivores; forest duikers are terrestrial frugivores, and terrestrial rodents are frugivores or omnivores. Leaves, in spite of their abundance, are rarely eaten because of their low nutritive value and the difficulties of digesting them and consequently folivores (9%) are uncommon. Insects form the principal food for insect-bats and shrews. Mammals exhibit well-defined food partitioning in relation to food selection and body size, and therefore competition for food is probably minimal except during the dry season. Reproduction is more or less continuous in rodents and artiodactyis (with peaks of births at selected seasons); in contrast, monkeys and bats have fairly precise periods when births occur, which vary according to the species. The timing of reproductive events is regulated by the rainfall regime, availabiiity of food, and phyiogenetic characteristics such as the length of gestation and body size. Mammals interact with other rainforest organisms, principally as primary and secondary consumers, pollinators, and dispersers of fruits and seeds. Most species of rain forest mammals are solitary, but a few live in monospecific groups or in polyspecific groups. Forest disturbance in recent years (especially forest clearance and hunting) has had very detrimental effects on the geographical distribution and numbers of individuals of all species of forest mammals.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences , Volume 104: Essays on the Ecology of the Guinea-Congo Rain Forest , 1996 , pp. 243 - 284
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Society of Edinburgh 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anstey, S. 1992. Antelope Survey Update: Liberia. Gnunews (IUCN Species Survival Commission, Antelope Specialist Group) 11 (1 & 2), 18–20.Google Scholar
Alexandre, D. Y. 1978. Le role disseminateur des elephants en forêt de Tai, Côte d'Ivoire. Terre et Vie 32, 47–72.Google Scholar
Alexandre, D. Y. 1980. Le regime des elephants du centre de la Côte d'Ivoire. Terre et Vie 34, 655–7.Google Scholar
Baker, H. G. 1973. Evolutionary relationships between flowering plants and animals in American and African tropical forests. In Meggar, B. J., Ayensu, E. S., & Duckworth, W. D., (Eds) Tropical forest ecosystems of Africa and South America, pp. 145–59. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Baker, H. G., & Harris, B. J. 1957. The pollination of Parkia by bats and its attendant evolutionary problems. Evolution 11, 449–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertin, R. I. 1989. Pollination biology. In Abrahamson, W. G., (Ed.) Plant–animal interactions, pp. 163–204. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Booth, A. H. 1954. The Dahomey Gap and the mammalian fauna of the West African forests. Revue de Zoologie et Botanique Africaine 50, 305–14.Google Scholar
Booth, A. H. 1958. The Niger, the Volta and the Dahomey Gap as geographic barriers. Evolution 12, 48–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourlière, F. 1963. Observations on the ecology of some large African mammals. In Howell, F. C., & Bourlière, F., (Eds) African ecology and human evolution, pp. 43–54. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Bourlière, F. 1983. Animal species diversity in tropical forests. In Golley, F. B., (Ed.) Tropical forest ecosystems: structure and function (Ecosystems of the World, 14A), pp. 77–91. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Bourlière, F. 1985. Primate communities: their structure and role in tropical ecosystems. International Journal of Primatology 6, 1–26.Google Scholar
Bourlière, F., 1989. Mammalian species richness in tropical rainforests. In Bourlière, F., & HarmelinVivien, M. L., (Eds) Vertebrates in complex tropical ecosystems, pp. 153–68. New York: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourlière, F., & Harmelin-Vivien, M. L., 1989. Species diversity in tropical vertebrates: an ecosystem perspective. In Bourlière, F., & Harmelin-Vivien, M. L., (Eds) Vertebrates in complex tropical ecosystems, pp. 169–83. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Bradbury, J. W. 1977. Lek mating behaviour in the hammer-headed bat. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 45, 225–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brosset, A. 1966. Les chiroptères du Haut-Ivindo (Gabon). Biologica Gabonica 2, 47–86.Google Scholar
Brosset, A. 1969. Recherches sur la biologie des chiroptères troglophiles dans le nord-est du Gabon. Biologica Gabonica 2, 93–116.Google Scholar
Brosset, A. 1988. Le peuplement de mammiferes insectivores des forets du nord-est du Gabon. Terre et Vie 43, 23–46.Google Scholar
Brosset, A. 1990. A long term study of the rain forest birds in M'passa (Gabon). In Keast, A., (Ed.) Biogeography and ecology of forest bird communities, pp. 259–74. The Hague: SPB Academic Publishing.Google Scholar
Butynski, T. M. 1988. Guenon birth seasons and correlates with rainfall and food. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourlière, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) A primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 284–322. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Charles-Dominique, P. 1971. Eco-ethologie des prosimiens du Gabon. Biologica Gabonica 7, 124–228.Google Scholar
Charles-Dominique, P. 1975. Nocturnality and Diurnality. In Luckett, W. P., & Szalay, F. S., (Eds) Phytogeny of the Primates, pp. 69–88. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Charles-Dominique, P. 1977. Ecology and behaviour of nocturnal Primates. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Chivers, D. J., & Hladik, C. M. 1980. Morphology of the gastrointestinal tract in Primates: comparisons with other mammals in relation to diet. Journal of Morphology 166, 337–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chivers, D. J., & Hladik, C. M. 1984. Diet and gut morphology in Primates. In Chivers, D. A., Wood, B. A., & Bilsborough, A., (Eds) Food acquisition and processing in Primates, pp. 213–30. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Harvey, P. 1977. Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in Primates. In Clutton-Brock, T. H., (Ed.) Primate ecology: studies of feeding and ranging in lemurs, monkeys and apes, pp. 557–84. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Harvey, P. H. 1977. Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 183, 1–39.Google Scholar
Coe, M. J. 1984. Primates: their niche structure and habitats. In Chivers, D. A., Wood, B. A., & Bilsborough, A., (Eds) Food acquisition and processing in Primates, pp. 1–32. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Colyn, M. M. 1988. Distribution of guenons in the Zaire–Lualaba–Lomani river system. In Gautier–Hion, A., Bourlière, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) A Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 104–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Colyn, M., Gautier-Hion, A., & Verheyen, W. 1991. A re-appraisal of palaeoenvironment history in Central Africa: evidence for a major fluvial refuge in the Zaire Basin. Journal of Biogeography 18, 403–7.Google Scholar
Connell, J. H., & Lowman, M. D. 1989. Low diversity tropical rainforests: some possible mechanisms for their existance. American Naturalist 134, 88–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corbet, G. B., & Hill, J. E. 1991. A world list of mammalian species (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Delany, M. J., & Happold, D. C. D. 1979. Ecology of African mammals. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, F. 1986. Seasonal reproduction and population dynamics in rodents of an African lowland rain forest. Cimbebasia (Ser. A) 8, 1–7.Google Scholar
Dieterlen, F. 1989. Rodents. In Leith, H., & Werger, M. J. A., (Eds) Tropical rain forest ecosystems (Ecosystems of the World, 14B), pp. 383–400. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Dubost, G. 1968a. Apercu sur le rythme annuel de reproduction des muridés du nord-est du Gabon. Biologica Gabonica 4, 227–239.Google Scholar
Dubost, G. 1968b. Le rythme annuel de reproduction du chevrotain aquatique, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby, dans le secteur forestier du nord-est du Gabon. In Canivenc, R., (Eds) Cycles genitaux saissoniers de mammifères sauvages, pp. 51–6. Paris: Masson.Google Scholar
Dubost, G. 1984. Comparison of the diets of frugivorous forest ruminants of Gabon. Journal of Mammalogy 65, 298–316.Google Scholar
Dubost, G., & Feer, F. 1992. Saisons de reproduction des petits ruminants dans le nord-est du Gabon, en fonction des resources alimentaires. Mammalia 56, 25–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duplantier, J.-M. 1989. Les rongeurs myomorphes forestier du nord-est du Gabon: structure du peuplement, demographie, domaines vitaux. Terre et Vie 44, 329–346.Google Scholar
ECOTROP. nd. Liste des vertebres de la region de Makokou, Gabon. Paris: CNRS.Google Scholar
Emmons, L. 1980. Ecology and resource partitioning among nine species of African rain forest squirrels. Ecological Monographs 50, 31–54.Google Scholar
Emmons, L. H., Gautier-Hion, A., & Dubost, G. 1983. Community structure of the frugivorous-folivorous mammals of Gabon. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 199, 209–22.Google Scholar
Faegri, K., & van der Pijl, L. 1979. The principles of pollination biology (3rd edn). Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Feer, F. 1979. Observations ecologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neotragus batesi de Winton 1903, Artiodactyle, Ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du Gabon. Terre et Vie 33, 217–35.Google Scholar
Feer, F. 1989. Occupation de l'espèce par deux bovides sympatriques de la forêts dense africaine (Cephalophus callipygus et C. dorsalis): influence du rhythme d'activité. Terre et Vie 44, 225–48.Google Scholar
Fleming, T. H., & Heithaus, E. R. 1981. Frugivorous bats, seed shadows, and the structure of tropical forests. Biotropica 13 (Suppl.), 45–53.Google Scholar
Freeman, P. W. 1981. Correspondence of food habits and morphology in insectivorous bats. Journal of Mammalogy 62, 166–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galat, G., & Galat-Luong, A., 1985. La communaute de primates diurnes de la forêt de Tai, Côte d'Ivoire. Terre et Vie 40, 3–32.Google Scholar
Gartlan, J. S., & Struhsaker, T. T. 1972. Polyspecific associations and niche separation of rain-forest anthropoids in Cameroon, West Africa. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 168, 221–266.Google Scholar
Gautier, J.-P., & Gautier-Hion, A. 1969. Les associations polyspèciflques chez les Cercopithecidae du Gabon. Terre et Vie 2, 164–201.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A. 1971. L'ecologie du talapoin du Gabon. Terre et Vie 25, 427–90.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A. 1978. Food niches and coexistance in sympatric Primates in Gabon. In Chivers, D. J., & Herbert, J., (Eds) Recent advances in primatology, pp. 269–86. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A. 1980. Seasonal variations of diet related to species and sex in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. Journal of Animal Ecology 49, 237–69.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A. 1988. The diet and dietary habits of forest guenons. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) A Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 257–83. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A. 1990. Interactions among fruit and vertebrate fruit-eaters in an African tropical rain forest. In Bawa, K. S., & Hadley, M., (Eds) Reproductive ecology of tropical forest plants, pp. 219–30. Paris: Unesco & Parthenon Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., & Gautier, J.-P. 1974. Les associations polyspèciflques de cercopithèques du plateau de M'passa (Gabon). Folia Primatologia 22, 134–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gautier-Hion, A., Emmons, L. H., & Dubost, G. 1980. A comparison of the diets of three major groups of primary consumers of Gabon (Primates, Squirrels and Ruminants). Oecologia 45, 182–189.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., Gautier, J.-P., & Quris, R. 1981. Forest structure and fruit availability as complementary factors influencing habitat use by a troop of monkeys (Cercopithecus cephus). Terre et Vie 35, 511–36.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., Quris, R., & Gautier, J.-P. 1983. Monospecific vs polyspecific life: a comparative study of foraging and antipredatory tactics in a community of Cercopithecus monkeys. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 12, 325–35.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., Duplantier, J.-M., Emmons, L., Feer, F., Heckestweiler, P., Moungazi, A., Quris, R., & Sourd, C. 1985a. Coadaptation entre rythmes de fructication et frugivorie en forêt tropicale humide du Gabon; mythe ou realité. Terre et Vie 40, 425–9.Google Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., Duplantier, J.-M., Quris, R., Feer, F., Sourd, C., Decoux, J.-P., Dubost, G., & Emmons, L. 1985b. Fruit characters as a basis of fruit choice and seed dispersal in a tropical forest vertebrate community. Oecologia 65, 324–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gautier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J. 1988. A Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Grubb, P. 1973. Distribution, divergence and speciation of the Drill and Mandrill. Folia Primatologia 20, 161–77.Google Scholar
Grubb, P. 1978. Patterns of speciation in African mammals. Bulletin of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 6, 152–67.Google Scholar
Grubb, P. 1982. Refuges and dispersal in the speciation of African forest mammals. In Prance, G. T., (Ed.) Biological diversity in the tropics, pp. 537–53. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Haltenorth, T., & Diller, H. 1980. A field guide to the mammals of Africa including Madagascar. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Hamilton, A. C. 1988. Guenon evolution and forest history. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) A Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 13–34. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, A. C. 1989. African forests. In Leith, H., & Werger, M. J. A., (Eds) Tropical rain forest ecosystems: biogeographical and ecological studies. (Ecosystems of the world 14B), pp. 155–82. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Happold, D. C. D. 1973. Large mammals of West Africa. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Happold, D. C. D. 1977. A population study on small rodents in the tropical rain forest of Nigeria. Terre et Vie 31, 385–458.Google Scholar
Happold, D. C. D. 1978. Reproduction, growth and development of a West African forest mouse, Praomys tullbergi (Thomas). Mammalia 42, 73–95.Google Scholar
Happold, D. C. D. 1987. The mammals of Nigeria. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Happold, D. C. D., & Happold, M. 1990. Reproductive strategies of bats in Africa. Journal of Zoology, London 222, 557–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, B. J., & Baker, H. G. 1958. Pollination in Kigelia africana Benth. Journal of the West African Science Association 4, 25–30.Google Scholar
Harris, B. J., & Baker, H. G. 1959. Pollination of flowers by bats in Ghana. Nigerian Field 24, 151–9.Google Scholar
Harrison, M. J. S. 1986. Feeding ecology of Black Colobus (Colobus satanas) in central Gabon. In Else, J. G., & Lee, P. C., (Eds) Primate ecology and conservation, pp. 31–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harrison, M. J. S., & Hladik, C. M. 1986. Un primate granivore: le colobe noir dans la foret du Gabon: potentialite d'evolution du comportement alimentaire. Terre et Vie 41, 281–98.Google Scholar
Hart, J. A., & Hart, T. B. 1989. Ranging and feeding behaviour of okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in the Ituri Forest of Zaire: food limitation in a rain-forest herbivore? Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 61, 31–50.Google Scholar
Hart, T. B., & Hart, J. A. 1986. The ecological basis of hunter-gatherer subsistance in African rain forests: the Mbuti of eastern Zaire. Human Ecology 14, 29–54.Google Scholar
Hart, T. B., Hart, J. A., & Murphy, P. G. 1989. Monodominant and species-rich forests of the humid tropics: causes for their co-occurrence. American Naturalist 133, 613–33.Google Scholar
Heithaus, E. R. 1982. Coevolution between bats and plants. In Kunz, T. H., (Ed.) Ecology of Bats, pp. 327–67. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Hladik, C. M. 1978. Adaptive strategies of Primates in relation to leaf-eating. In Montgomery, G. G., (Ed.) Ecology of arboreal folivores, pp. 373–95. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Jarman, P. J., 1974. The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48, 215–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johns, A. D., & Skorupa, J. P. 1987. Responses of rain-forest Primates to habitat disturbance: a review. International Journal of Primatology 8, 157–91.Google Scholar
Kingdon, J. 1990. Island Africa. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Kortlandt, A. 1984. Vegetation research and the ‘bulldozer’ herbivores of tropical Africa. In Chadwick, A. C., & Sutton, S. L., (Eds) Tropical rainforest. The Leeds Symposium pp. 205–26. Leeds: Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.Google Scholar
Kuhn, H.-J., 1965. A provisional check-list of the mammals of Liberia. Senckenbergiana Biologica 46, 321–40.Google Scholar
Lernould, J.-M., 1988. Classification and geographical distribution of guenons: a review. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) A Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 54–78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McKey, D. B., Gartlan, J. S., Waterman, P. G., & Choo, G. M. 1981. Food selection by black colobus monkeys (Colobus satanas) in relation to plant chemistry. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 16, 115–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, A. G. 1983. Bats, flowers and fruit: evolutionary relationships in the Old World. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 20, 115–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, A. G. 1985. Old World phytophagus bats (Megachiroptera) and their food plants: a survey. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 83, 351–69.Google Scholar
Moreau, R. E. 1969. Climatic change and the distribution of vertebrates in West Africa. Journal of Zoology, London 158, 39–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muhlenberg, M., Galat-Luong, A., Poilecot, P., Steinhauer-Burkart, B., & Kuhn, I. 1990. L'importance des ilots forestiers de savane humide pour la conservation de la faune de forêt dense en Côte d'lvoire. Terre et Vie 45, 197–214.Google Scholar
Oates, J. 1977. The Guereza and its food. In Clutton-Brock, T. H., (Ed.) Primate ecology: studies of feeding and ranging in lemurs, monkeys and apes, pp. 276–321. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Oates, J. F. 1988. The distribution of Cercopithecus monkeys in West African forest. In Gautier-Hion, A., Bourlière, F., Gautier, J.-P., & Kingdon, J., (Eds) Primate radiation: evolutionary biology of the African guenons, pp. 79–103. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oates, J. F., & Whitesides, G. H. 1990. Association between Olive Colobus (Procolobus verus), Diana Guenons (Cercopithecus diana), and other forest monkeys in Sierra Leone. American Journal of Primatology 21, 129–46.Google Scholar
Pagès, E., 1970. Sur l'écologie et les adaptations de l'Orycterope et des pangolins sympatriques du Gabon. Biologica Gabonica 6, 27–92.Google Scholar
Prins, H. H. T., & Reitsma, J. M. 1989. Mammalian biomass in an African equatorial rain forest. Journal of Animal Ecology 58, 851–61.Google Scholar
Quris, R. 1975. Écologie et organisation sociale de Cercocebus galeritus agilis dans le nord-est du Gabon. Terre et Vie 29, 337–98.Google Scholar
Quris, R. 1976. Donnees comparatives sur la socio-ecologie de huit espèces de Cercopithecidae vivant dans une meme zone de forest primitive periodiquement inondee (Nord-est du Gabon). Terr et Vie 30, 193–209.Google Scholar
Rahm, U. 1966. Les mammifères de la forêt équatoriale de l'Est du Congo. Annales du Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Série in 8°, Sciences Zoologiques 149, 39–121.Google Scholar
Robbins, C. B. 1978. The Dahomey Gap – a reevaluation of its significance as a faunal barrier to West African high forest mammals. Bulletin of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 6, 168–74.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. 1969. Correlates of ecology and social organisation among African cercopithecines. Folia Primatologica 11, 80–118.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. 1981. Polyspecific associations among tropical forest primates. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 57, 268–304.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T., & Oates, J. F. 1975. Comparison of the ecology of red colobus and black-and-white colobus monkeys in Uganda. In Turtle, R. H., (Ed.) Socioecology and psychology of Primates, pp. 103–23. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. W. 1983. The annual migrations of three species of West African fruit bats (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology 61, 2266–72.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. W. 1988. Analysis of diets of plant-visiting bats. In Kunz, T. H., (Ed.) Ecological and behavioural methods for the study of bats, pp. 211–20. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Vogel, P. 1983. Contribution a l'écologie et a la zoogéographie du Micropotamogale lamottei (Mammalia, Tenrecidae). Terre et Vie 38, 37–49.Google Scholar
White, L. J. T. 1994. Biomass of rain forest mammals in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Journal of Animal Ecology 63, 499–512.Google Scholar
Whitesides, G. H. 1989. Interspecific associations of Diana monkeys, Cercopithecus diana, in Sierra Leone, West Africa: biological significance or chance? Animal Behaviour 37, 760–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkie, D. S., & Finn, J. T. 1990. Slash–burn cultivation and mammal abundance in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. Biotropica 22, 90–99.Google Scholar
Wilson, D. E. 1983. Checklist of Mammals. In Janzen, D. H., (Ed.) Costa Rican natural history, pp. 443–7. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar