Hostname: page-component-89b8bd64d-7zcd7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-10T22:21:42.552Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Implications for neurobiological research of cognitive models of psychosis: a theoretical paper

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 March 2007

PHILIPPA A. GARETY ,
PAUL BEBBINGTON ,
DAVID FOWLER ,
DANIEL FREEMAN  and
ELIZABETH KUIPERS
PHILIPPA A. GARETY*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
PAUL BEBBINGTON
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Health Sciences, Royal Free and University College London Medical School, London, UK
DAVID FOWLER
Affiliation:
School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
DANIEL FREEMAN
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
ELIZABETH KUIPERS
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor Philippa Garety, Department of Psychology PO77, Henry Wellcome Building, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK. (Email: p.garety@iop.kcl.ac.uk)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Cognitive models of the positive symptoms of psychosis specify the cognitive, social and emotional processes hypothesized to contribute to their occurrence and persistence, and propose that vulnerable individuals make characteristic appraisals that result in specific positive symptoms.

Method

We describe cognitive models of positive psychotic symptoms and use this as the basis of discussing recent relevant empirical investigations and reviews that integrate cognitive approaches into neurobiological frameworks.

Results

Evidence increasingly supports a number of the hypotheses proposed by cognitive models. These are that: psychosis is on a continuum; specific cognitive processes are risk factors for the transition from subclinical experiences to clinical disorder; social adversity and trauma are associated with psychosis and with negative emotional processes; and these emotional processes contribute to the occurrence and persistence of psychotic symptoms. There is also evidence that reasoning biases contribute to the occurrence of delusions.

Conclusions

The benefits of incorporating cognitive processes into neurobiological research include more sophisticated, bidirectional and interactive causal models, the amplification of phenotypes in neurobiological investigations by including emotional processes, and the adoption of more specific clinical phenotypes. For example, there is potential value in studying gene×environment×cognition/emotion interactions. Cognitive models and their derived phenotypes constitute the missing link in the chain between genetic or acquired biological vulnerability, the social environment and the expression of individual positive symptoms.

Information

Type
Invited Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 37 , Issue 10 , October 2007 , pp. 1377 - 1391
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton, R., Murray, R., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. British Medical Journal 325, 1212–1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Witton, J. & Murray, R. M. (2004). Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. British Journal of Psychiatry 184, 110–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., MacDonald, A. W. III, Braver, T. S. & Cohen, J. D. (2003). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: diagnostic specificity, 4-week course, and relationships to clinical symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 132–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrowclough, C. & Hooley, J. M. (2003). Attributions and expressed emotion: a review. Clinical Psychology Review 23, 849–880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrowclough, C., Tarrier, N., Humphreys, L., Ward, J., Gregg, L. & Andrews, B. (2003). Self-esteem in schizophrenia: relationships between self-evaluation, family attitudes, and symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 92–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P. & Kuipers, L. (1994). The predictive utility of expressed emotion in schizophrenia: an aggregate analysis. Psychological Medicine 24, 707–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P., Wilkins, S., Jones, P., Foerster, A., Murray, R., Toone, B. & Lewis, S. (1993). Life events and psychosis. Initial results from the Camberwell Collaborative Psychosis Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 162, 72–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P. E., Bhugra, D., Brugha, T., Singleton, N., Farrell, M., Jenkins, R., Lewis, G. & Meltzer, H. (2004). Psychosis, victimisation and childhood disadvantage: evidence from the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 220–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R. P. (1990). Reconstructing Schizophrenia. Routledge: London.Google Scholar
Bentall, R. P., Claridge, G. S. & Slade, P. D. (1989). The multidimensional nature of schizotypal traits: a factor analytic study with normal subjects. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 28 (Pt 4), 363–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R. P., Corcoran, R., Howard, R., Blackwood, N. & Kinderman, P. (2001). Persecutory delusions: a review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review 21, 1143–1192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews 28, 309–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birchwood, M. (2003). Pathways to emotional dysfunction in first-episode psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 373–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birchwood, M., Gilbert, P., Gilbert, J., Trower, P., Meaden, A., Hay, J., Murray, E. & Miles, J. N. (2004). Interpersonal and role-related schema influence the relationship with the dominant ‘voice’ in schizophrenia: a comparison of three models. Psychological Medicine 34, 1571–1580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birley, J. L. & Brown, G. W. (1970). Crises and life changes preceding the onset or relapse of acute schizophrenia: clinical aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry 116, 327–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolton, D. & Hill, J. (1996). Mind, Meaning and Mental Disorder. The Nature of Causal Explanation in Psychology and Psychiatry. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Bramon, E., Kelly, J., van Os, J. & Murray, R. (2001). The cascade of increasingly deviant development that culminates in the onset of schizophrenia. Neuroscience Newsletter 4, 5–19.Google Scholar
Brentano, F. (1874). Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt. Duncker & Humblot: Leipzig.Google Scholar
Broome, M. R., Johns, L. C., Valli, I., Woolley, J. B., Tabraham, P., Brett, C., Valmaggia, L., Peters, E., Garety, P. A. & McGuire, P. K. (in press). People with an at risk mental state jump to conclusions. British Journal of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Broome, M. R., Woolley, J. B., Tabraham, P., Johns, L. C., Bramon, E., Murray, G. K., Pariante, C., McGuire, P. K. & Murray, R. M. (2005). What causes the onset of psychosis? Schizophrenia Research 79, 23–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantor-Graae, E. & Selten, J. P. (2005). Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 12–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., Williams, B., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R. & Craig, I. W. (2005). Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene×environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1117–1127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chadwick, P. & Birchwood, M. (1994). The omnipotence of voices. A cognitive approach to auditory hallucinations. British Journal of Psychiatry 164, 190–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P., Kwapil, T. R., Eckblad, M. & Zinser, M. C. (1994). Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, 171–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colbert, S. M. & Peters, E. R. (2002). Need for closure and jumping-to-conclusions in delusion-prone individuals. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190, 27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotter, D. & Pariante, C. M. (2002). Stress and the progression of the developmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 181, 363–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craddock, N., O'Donovan, M. C. & Owen, M. J. (2005). The genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: dissecting psychosis. Journal of Medical Genetics 42, 193–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craddock, N., O'Donovan, M. C. & Owen, M. J. (2006). Genes for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder? Implications for psychiatric nosology. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egan, M. F., Goldberg, T. E., Kolachana, B. S., Callicott, J. H., Mazzanti, C. M., Straub, R. E., Goldman, D. & Weinberger, D. R. (2001). Effect of COMT Val108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98, 6917–6922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, P., Kirkbride, J. B., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Lloyd, T., Hutchinson, G., Tarrant, J., Lun, Alan F. W., Holloway, J., Mallett, R., Harrison, G., Leff, J., Jones, P. B. & Murray, R. M. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: results from the MRC AESOP Study. Psychological Medicine 36, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, P. & Morgan, C. (2006). Environmental factors in schizophrenia: the role of migrant studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 405–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowler, D. (2000). Cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis: from understanding to treatment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 4, 199–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, D., Freeman, D., Smith, B., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P., Bashforth, H., Coker, S., Hodgekins, J., Gracie, A., Dunn, G. & Garety, P. (2006). The Brief Core Schema Scales (BCSS): psychometric properties and associations with paranoia and grandiosity in non-clinical and psychosis samples. Psychological Medicine 36, 749–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D. & Garety, P. A. (1999). Worry, worry processes and dimensions of delusions: an exploratory investigation of a role for anxiety processes in the maintenance of delusional distress. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 27, 47–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, D. & Garety, P. A. (2003). Connecting neurosis and psychosis: the direct influence of emotion on delusions and hallucinations. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41, 923–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Bebbington, P. E., Smith, B., Rollinson, R., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E., Ray, K. & Dunn, G. (2005 a). Psychological investigation of the structure of paranoia in a non-clinical population. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 427–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Bebbington, P., Slater, M., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Green, C., Jordan, J., Ray, K. & Dunn, G. (2005 b). The psychology of persecutory ideation II: a virtual reality experimental study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, 309–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P. E. & Dunn, G. (2004). Why do people with delusions fail to choose more realistic explanations for their experiences? An empirical investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72, 671–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D. & Bebbington, P. E. (2002). A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 41, 331–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D., Slater, M., Bebbington, P. E., Garety, P. A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Met, A., Read, C. M., Jordan, J. & Vinayagamoorthy, V. (2003). Can virtual reality be used to investigate persecutory ideation? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191, 509–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. (1992). The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hove.Google Scholar
Frith, C. (2005). The neural basis of hallucinations and delusions. Comptes Rendus Biologies 328, 169–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C. D., Blakemore, S. & Wolpert, D. M. (2000). Explaining the symptoms of schizophrenia: abnormalities in the awareness of action. Brain Research Reviews 31, 357–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fu, C. H., Suckling, J., Williams, S. C., Andrew, C. M., Vythelingum, G. N. & McGuire, P. K. (2005). Effects of psychotic state and task demand on prefrontal function in schizophrenia: an fMRI study of overt verbal fluency. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 485–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P. (1985). Delusions: problems in definition and measurement. British Journal of Medical Psychology 58, 25–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P. & Freeman, D. (1999). Cognitive approaches to delusions: a critical review of theories and evidence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38 (Pt 2), 113–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P. A., Freeman, D., Jolley, S., Dunn, G., Bebbington, P. E., Fowler, D. G., Kuipers, E. & Dudley, R. (2005). Reasoning, emotions, and delusional conviction in psychosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 373–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P. A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Freeman, D. & Bebbington, P. E. (2001). A cognitive model of the positive symptoms of psychosis. Psychological Medicine 31, 189–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, T. E., Egan, M. F., Gscheidle, T., Coppola, R., Weickert, T., Kolachana, B. S., Goldman, D. & Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Executive subprocesses in working memory: relationship to catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 889–896.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, P. S., Castner, S. A., Svensson, T. H., Siever, L. J. & Williams, G. V. (2004). Targeting the dopamine D1 receptor in schizophrenia: insights for cognitive dysfunction. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 174, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, J., Feldon, J., Rawlins, J., Hemsley, D. & Smith, A. (1991). The neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14, 1–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, M. J. & Phillips, M. L. (2004). Social threat perception and the evolution of paranoia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 28, 333–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanssen, M., Krabbendam, L., de Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W. & van Os, J. (2005). Role of distress in delusion formation. British Journal of Psychiatry (Suppl.) 48, s55–s58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanssen, M., Krabbendam, L., Vollema, M., Delespaul, P. & van Os, J. (2006). Evidence for instrument and family-specific variation of subclinical psychosis dimensions in the general population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardy, A., Fowler, D., Freeman, D., Smith, B., Steel, C., Evans, J., Garety, P., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P. & Dunn, G. (2005). Trauma and hallucinatory experience in psychosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 193, 501–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hemsley, D. R. (1993). A simple (or simplistic?) cognitive model for schizophrenia. Behavioural Research and Therapy 31, 633–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hemsley, D. R. (2005). The schizophrenic experience: taken out of context? Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 43–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henquet, C., Rosa, A., Krabbendam, L., Papiol, S., Fananas, L., Drukker, M., Ramaekers, J. G. & van Os, J. (2006). An experimental study of catechol-O-methyltransferase Val(158)Met moderation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced effects on psychosis and cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2748–2757.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howes, O. M., Asselin, M.-C., Murray, R. M., McGuire, P. & Grasby, P. M. (2006). The pre-synaptic dopaminergic system before and after the onset of psychosis: initial results from an ongoing [18F]fluoro-DOPA PET study. Schizophrenia Research 81, 14.Google Scholar
Jankowski, M. K., Mueser, K. T. & Rosenberg, S. D. (2006). Psychosis with comorbid PTSD. In Trauma and Psychosis (ed. Larkin, W. and Morrison, A. P.), pp. 75–100. Routledge: London.Google Scholar
Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Vollebergh, W., de Graaf, R. & van Os, J. (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109, 38–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, L. C., Cannon, M., Singleton, N., Murray, R. M., Farrell, M., Brugha, T., Bebbington, P., Jenkins, R. & Meltzer, H. (2004). Prevalence and correlates of self-reported psychotic symptoms in the British population. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 298–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, L. C. & van Os, J. (2001). The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population. Clinical Psychology Review 21, 1125–1141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolley, S., Garety, P., Bebbington, P., Dunn, G., Freeman, D., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D. & Hemsley, D. (2006). Attributional style in psychosis – the role of affect and belief type. Behavioural Research and Therapy 44, 1597–1607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, C., Cormac, I., Silveira Da, Mota Neto J. I. & Campbell, C. (2004). Cognitive behaviour therapy for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Art no.: CD000524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P. & Murray, R. M. (1991). The genetics of schizophrenia is the genetics of neurodevelopment. British Journal of Psychiatry 158, 615–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joyce, E. & Huddy, V. (2004). Defining the cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 34, 1151–1155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 13–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapur, S., Mizrahi, R. & Li, M. (2005). From dopamine to salience to psychosis – linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 79, 59–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkbride, J. B., Fearon, P., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Tarrant, J., Lloyd, T., Holloway, J., Hutchinson, G., Leff, J. P., Mallett, R. M., Harrison, G. L., Murray, R. M. & Jones, P. B. (2006). Heterogeneity in incidence rates of schizophrenia and other psychotic syndromes: findings from the 3-center AeSOP study. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 250–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L., Myin-Germeys, I., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V., de Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W., Bak, M. & van Os, J. (2004). Hallucinatory experiences and onset of psychotic disorder: evidence that the risk is mediated by delusion formation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110, 264–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L., Myin-Germeys, I., Hanssen, M., de Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W., Bak, M. & van Os, J. (2005). Development of depressed mood predicts onset of psychotic disorder in individuals who report hallucinatory experiences. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, 113–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krabbendam, L. & van Os, J. (2005). Affective processes in the onset and persistence of psychosis. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 255, 185–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuipers, E. (2006). Family interventions in schizophrenia: evidence for efficacy and proposed mechanisms of change. Journal of Family Therapy 28, 73–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P., Dunn, G., Fowler, D., Freeman, D., Watson, P., Hardy, A. & Garety, P. (2006 b). Influence of carer expressed emotion and affect on relapse in non-affective psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 173–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuipers, E., Garety, P., Fowler, D., Freeman, D., Dunn, G. & Bebbington, P. (2006 a). Cognitive, emotional, and social processes in psychosis: refining cognitive behavioral therapy for persistent positive symptoms. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32 (Suppl. 1), S24–S31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laruelle, M. & Abi-Dargham, A. (1999). Dopamine as the wind of the psychotic fire: new evidence from brain imaging studies. Journal of Psychopharmacology 13, 358–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lobban, F., Barrowclough, C. & Jones, S. (2004). The impact of beliefs about mental health problems and coping on outcome in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 34, 1165–1176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, A. W., Carter, C. C., Kerns, J. G., Ursu, S., Barch, D. M., Holmes, A. J., Stenger, V. A. & Cohen, J. D. (2005). Specificity of prefrontal dysfunction and context processing deficits to schizophrenia in never-medicated patients with first-episode psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 475–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J. J. (2006). Variations in the incidence of schizophrenia: data versus dogma. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 195–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A. & Rutter, M. (2005). Strategy for investigating interactions between measured genes and measured environments. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 473–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moritz, S. & Woodward, T. S. (2005). Jumping to conclusions in delusional and non-delusional schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, 193–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, A. P. (2001). The interpretation of intrusions in psychosis: an integrative cognitive approach to hallucinations and delusions. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 29, 257–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, A. P. & Baker, C. A. (2000). Intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations: a comparative study of intrusions in psychosis. Behavioural Research and Therapy 38, 1097–1106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, A. P., Frame, L. & Larkin, W. (2003). Relationships between trauma and psychosis: a review and integration. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 42, 331–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, A. P., Wells, A. & Nothard, S. (2002). Cognitive and emotional predictors of predisposition to hallucinations in non-patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 41, 259–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mueser, K. T., Goodman, L. B., Trumbetta, S. L., Rosenberg, S. D., Osher, C., Vidaver, R., Auciello, P. & Foy, D. W. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, 493–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, R. M. & Lewis, S. W. (1987). Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? British Medical Journal (Clinical Research and Education) 295, 681–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P. & van Os, J. (2005 a). Behavioural sensitization to daily life stress in psychosis. Psychological Medicine 35, 733–741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., Marcelis, M., Krabbendam, L., Delespaul, P. & van Os, J. (2005 b). Subtle fluctuations in psychotic phenomena as functional states of abnormal dopamine reactivity in individuals at risk. Biological Psychiatry 58, 105–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norman, R. M., Malla, A. K., Manchanda, R., Harricharan, R., Takhar, J. & Northcott, S. (2005). Social support and three-year symptom and admission outcomes for first episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 80, 227–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, M. J., Craddock, N. & O'Donovan, M. C. (2005). Schizophrenia: genes at last? Trends in Genetics 21, 518–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pantelis, C., Yucel, M., Wood, S. J., McGorry, P. D. & Velakoulis, D. (2003). Early and late neurodevelopmental disturbances in schizophrenia and their functional consequences. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 37, 399–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Persons, J. B. (1986). The advantages of studying psychological phenomena rather than psychiatric diagnoses. American Psychologist 41, 1252–1260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E., Day, S., McKenna, J. & Orbach, G. (1999 a). Delusional ideation in religious and psychotic populations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38 (Pt 1), 83–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E. & Garety, P. (2006). Cognitive functioning in delusions: a longitudinal analysis. Behavioural Research and Therapy 44, 481–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E. R., Joseph, S. A. & Garety, P. A. (1999 b). Measurement of delusional ideation in the normal population: introducing the PDI (Peters et al. Delusions Inventory). Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 553–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulton, R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., Murray, R. & Harrington, H. (2000). Children's self-reported psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: a 15-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1053–1058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raune, D., Bebbington, P., Dunn, G. & Kuipers, E. (2006). Event attributes and the content of psychotic experiences in first-episode psychosis. Psychological Medicine 36, 221–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Read, J., van Os, J., Morrison, A. P. & Ross, C. A. (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 330–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, T. E. & Becker, J. B. (1986). Enduring changes in brain and behavior produced by chronic amphetamine administration: a review and evaluation of animal models of amphetamine psychosis. Brain Research 396, 157–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W. (2002). Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron 36, 241–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W. (2004). Neural coding of basic reward terms of animal learning theory, game theory, microeconomics and behavioural ecology. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 14, 139–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, T. G., Ohlraun, S., Czerski, P. M., Schumacher, J., Kassem, L., Deschner, M., Gross, M., Tullius, M., Heidmann, V., Kovalenko, S., Jamra, R. A., Becker, T., Leszczynska-Rodziewicz, A., Hauser, J., Illig, T., Klopp, N., Wellek, S., Cichon, S., Henn, F. A., McMahon, F. J., Maier, W., Propping, P., Nothen, M. M. & Rietschel, M. (2005). Genotype–phenotype studies in bipolar disorder showing association between the DAOA/G30 locus and persecutory delusions: a first step toward a molecular genetic classification of psychiatric phenotypes. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 2101–2108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segal, Z. V., Kennedy, S., Gemar, M., Hood, K., Pedersen, R. & Buis, T. (2006). Cognitive reactivity to sad mood provocation and the prediction of depressive relapse. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 749–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selten, J. P. & Cantor-Graae, E. (2005). Social defeat: risk factor for schizophrenia? British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 101–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sensky, T., Turkington, D., Kingdon, D., Scott, J. L., Scott, J., Siddle, R., O'Carroll, M. & Barnes, T. R. (2000). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for persistent symptoms in schizophrenia resistant to medication. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 165–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, B., Fowler, D. G., Freeman, D., Bebbington, P., Bashforth, H., Garety, P., Dunn, G. & Kuipers, E. (2006). Emotion and psychosis: links between depression, self-esteem, negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations. Schizophrenia Research 86, 181–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spauwen, J., Krabbendam, L., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H. U. & van Os, J. (2006). Impact of psychological trauma on the development of psychotic symptoms: relationship with psychosis proneness. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 527–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Startup, H., Freeman, D. & Garety, P. A. (2007). Persecutory delusions and catastrophic worry in psychosis: developing the understanding of delusion distress and persistence. Behavioural Research and Therapy 45, 523–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, J. S. (1969). Hallucinations and delusions as points on continua function. Rating scale evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry 21, 581–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarrier, N., Vaughn, C., Lader, M. & Leff, J. (1979). Bodily reactions to people and events in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 36, 311–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tenn, C. C., Kapur, S. & Fletcher, P. J. (2005). Sensitization to amphetamine, but not phencyclidine, disrupts prepulse inhibition and latent inhibition. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 180, 366–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valmaggia, L., Freeman, D., Green, C., Garety, P., Swapp, D., Antley, A., Prescott, C., Fowler, D., Kuipers, E., Bebbington, P., Slater, M., Broome, M. & McGuire, P. (in press). Virtual reality and paranoid ideations in people with an ‘at risk mental state’ for psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Van Dael, F., Versmissen, D., Janssen, I., Myin-Germeys, I., van Os, J. & Krabbendam, L. (2006). Data gathering: biased in psychosis? Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 341–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Gaag, M. (2006). A neuropsychiatric model of biological and psychological processes in the remission of delusions and auditory hallucinations. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32 (Suppl. 1), S113–S122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V. & Ravelli, A. (2000). Strauss (1969) revisited: a psychosis continuum in the general population? Schizophrenia Research 45, 11–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V. & Vollebergh, W. (2001). Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: an urban–rural comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 663–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J., Krabbendam, L., Myin-Germeys, I. & Delespaul, P. (2005). The schizophrenia envirome. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 58, 141–145.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. (1994). Recovery from Schizophrenia (2nd edn). Routledge: London.Google Scholar
Watson, P. W., Garety, P. A., Weinman, J., Dunn, G., Bebbington, P. E., Fowler, D., Freeman, D. & Kuipers, E. (2006). Emotional dysfunction in schizophrenia spectrum psychosis: the role of illness perceptions. Psychological Medicine 36, 761–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberger, D. R. (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 660–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiles, N. J., Zammit, S., Bebbington, P., Singleton, N., Meltzer, H. & Lewis, G. (2006). Self-reported psychotic symptoms in the general population: results from the longitudinal study of the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 519–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, J. K. & Brown, G. (1970). Institutionalism and Schizophrenia. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmermann, G., Favrod, J., Trieu, V. H. & Pomini, V. (2005). The effect of cognitive behavioral treatment on the positive symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research 77, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed