No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Cities with Class?
Growth Politics, the Working-Class City, and Debt in Milwaukee during the 1940s
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 January 2016
Extract
Nicknaming his city “Dear Old Lady Thrift,” Milwaukee Journal writer Richard Davis chastised city leaders for failing to build a “great city.” His unflattering portrait pictured post–World War II Milwaukee as a “plump and smiling city . … [sitting] in complacent shabbiness on the west shore of Lake Michigan like a wealthy old lady in black alpaca taking her ease on the beach.” He continued, “All her slips are showing, but she doesn’t mind a bit” (Davis 1947: 189, 191). Reprinted in the Milwaukee Journal two weeks before voters went to the polls to decide if the city would reverse its debt-free policy to finance postwar development, Davis’s depiction warned that Milwaukee was a chaotic andin efficient metropolis in danger of falling behind(“Not So Fair Is America’s Fair City” Milwaukee Journal [hereafter MJ], 16 March 1947). Her thriftiness bordered on stinginess, her complacency slipped into indolence, and her neglected femininity bespoke disorder. City leaders’ frugality, rooted in a tradition of cautious municipal fiscal policies, big city problems mismatched with small town attitudes, and public “indifference,” Davis contended, threatened the postwar city.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Social Science History , Volume 24 , Issue 1: Special Issue: The Working Classes and Urban Public Space , spring 2000 , pp. 257 - 305
- Copyright
- Copyright © Social Science History Association 2000
References
References
Collections
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Library, Milwaukee. Milwaukee Urban Archives. City Club of Milwaukee Records.Google Scholar
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Library, Milwaukee. Milwaukee Urban Archives. Milwaukee County Industrial Union Council Records.Google Scholar
Books, Articles, and Other Published Material
Abbott, Carl (1993) The Metropolitan Frontier: Cities in the Modern American West. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Abbott, Carl (1996) “Five strategies for downtown: Policy discourse and planning since 1943,” in Sies, Mary Corbin and Silver, Christopher (eds.) Planning the Twentieth-Century American City. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 404–27.Google Scholar
Ashby, Steven Kalgaard (1993) “Shattered dreams: The American working class and the origins of the Cold War, 1945-1949.” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago>..>Google Scholar
Avella, Steven M. (1991) Milwaukee Catholicism: Essays on Church and Community. Milwaukee, WI: Knights of Columbus.Google Scholar
Baker, Keith Michael (1990) Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Balogh, Brian Balogh (1991) “Reorganizing the organizational synthesis: Federal-Professional relations in modern America.” Studies in American Political Development
5: 119–72.Google Scholar
Barnes, William R. (1977) “A national controversy in miniature: The District of Columbia struggle over public housing and redevelopment, 1943-1946.” Prologue
9: 91–104.Google Scholar
Bauer, Catherine (1953) “Redevelopment: A misfit in the fifties,” in Woodbury, Coleman (ed.) The Future of Cities and Urban Redevelopment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 7–25.Google Scholar
Bauman, John F. (1980-81) “Visions of a post-war city: A perspective on urban planning in Philadelphia and the nation, 1942-1945.” Urbanism Past and Present
11: 1–11.Google Scholar
Bauman, John F. (1988) “The paradox of post-war urban planning: Downtown revitalization versus decent housing for all,” in Schaffer, Daniel (ed.) Two Centuries of American Planning. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 231–64.Google Scholar
Beauregard, Robert A. (1993) Voices of Decline: The Postwar Fate of U.S. Cities. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Beck, Elmer Axel (1982) The Sewer Socialists: A History of the Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1897-1940. Fennimore, WI: Westburg Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Bernard, Richard M. (1990) “Milwaukee: The death and life of a midwestern metropolis,” in Bernard, Richard M. (ed.) Snowbelt Cities: Metropolitan Politics in the Northeast and Midwest since World War II. Bloomington: Indiana University Press:170–88.Google Scholar
Bodnar, John (1980) “Immigration, kinship, and the rise of working-class realism in industrial America.” Journal of Social History
14: 45–65.Google Scholar
Booth, Douglas E. (1985) “Municipal socialism and city government reform: The Milwaukee experience, 1910-1940.” Journal of Urban History
12: 51–74.Google Scholar
Boyer, M. Christine (1983) Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning. Cambridge: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Boyle, Kevin (1995) The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Boyle, Kevin (1997) “The kiss: Racial and gender conflict in a 1950s automobile factory.” Journal of American History
84: 496–523.Google Scholar
Brinkley, Alan (1995) The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Bruno, Robert (1999) “Everyday constructions of culture and class: The case of Youngstown steelworkers.” Labor History
40: 143–76.Google Scholar
Bucki, Cecelia Frances (1991) “The pursuit of political power: Class, ethnicity, and municipal politics in interwar Bridgeport, 1915-1936.” Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Bucki, Cecelia Frances (1998) “The workers' state: Municipal policy, class, and taxes in the early depression,” in Arnesen, Eric,Green, Julie, and Laurie, Bruce (eds.) Labor Histories: Class, Politics, and the Working-Class Experience. Urbana: University of Illinois Press: 125–49.Google Scholar
Calder, Lendol (1999) Financing the American Dream: A Cultural History of Consumer Credit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, D'Ann (1984) Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cobble, Dorothy Sue (1991) “`Drawing the line': The construction of a gendered work force in the food service industry,” in Baron, Ava (ed.) Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Lizabeth (1996) “From town center to shopping center: The reconfiguration of community marketplaces in postwar America.” American Historical Review
101: 1050–81.Google Scholar
Collins, Robert M. (1990) “The emergence of economic growthmanship in the United States: Federal policy and economic knowledge in the Truman years,” in Furner, Mary O. and Supple, Barry (eds.) The State and Economic Knowledge: The American and British Experiences. New York: Cambridge University Press: 138–70.Google Scholar
Connolly, James J. (1998) The Triumph of Ethnic Progressivism: Urban Political Culture in Boston, 1900-1925. Cambridge: Harvard University press.Google Scholar
Conrad, Will C.,Wilson, Kathleen F. and Wilson, Dale (1964) The Milwaukee Journal: The First Eighty Years. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Conzen, Kathleen Neils (1976) Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836-1860: Accommodation and Community in a Frontier City. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Curran, Donald J. (1973) Metropolitan Financing: The Milwaukee Experience, 1920-1970. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. (1961) Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, Richard S. (1947) “Milwaukee: Oldlady thrift,” in Allen, Robert S. (ed.) Our Fair City. New York: Vanguard Press: 189–210.Google Scholar
Davis, Richard S. (1948) “Milwaukee's new Socialist mayor.” Progressive (June): 24–26.Google Scholar
Denning, Michael (1996) The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Dougherty, John Aaron (1997) “More than one struggle: African-American school reform movements in Milwaukee, 1930-1980.” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Ellis, Cliff (1996) “Professional conflict over urban form: The case of urban freeways, 1930 to 1970,” in Sies, Mary Corbin and Silver, Christopher (eds.) Planning the Twentieth-Century City. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 262–79.Google Scholar
Ethington, Philip J. (1994) The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ettenheim, Sarah C. (1980) How Milwaukee Voted: 1848-1980. Milwaukee: Department of Governmental Affairs, University Extension, University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Fairbanks, Robert B. (1988) Making Better Citizens: Housing Reform and the Community Development Strategy in Cincinnati, 1890-1960. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Fairbanks, Robert B. (1998) For the City as a Whole: Planning, Politics, and the Public Interest in Dallas, Texas, 1900-1965. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Faue, Elizabeth (1991) Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Faue, Elizabeth (1996) “`Anti-Heroes of the working class': A response to Bruce Nelson.” International Review of Social History
41: 375–88.Google Scholar
Fishman, Robert (1988) “The post-war American suburb: A new form, a new city,” in Schaffer, Daniel (ed.) Two Centuries of American City Planning. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 265–78.Google Scholar
Fleischmann, Arnold (1988) “The territorial expansion of Milwaukee: Historical lessons for contemporary urban policy and research.” Journal of Urban History
14: 147–76.Google Scholar
Fleischmann, Arnold and Feagin, Joe (1987) “The politics of growth-oriented urban alliances: Comparing old industrial and new Sunbelt cities.” Urban Affairs Quarterly
23: 207–32.Google Scholar
Fones-Wolf, Elizabeth A. (1994) Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on Labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Fraser, Steve and Gerstle, Gary eds. (1989)The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Funigiello, Philip J. (1978) The Challenge to Urban Liberalism: Federal-City Relations during World War II. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Fure-Slocum, Eric (1997) “Housing and blight in the postwar city: A critique of `unintended consequences' in urban policy.” Paper presented at the National Policy History Conference, Bowling Green, OH.Google Scholar
Fure-Slocum, Eric (1999) “The gender of city development? Shaping urban political culture in the 1940s.” Paper presented at thePolicy History Conference, Clayton, MO.Google Scholar
Gabin, Nancy F. (1990) Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Gavett, Thomas W. (1965) Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee. Madison: University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Geib, Paul Edward (1993) “The late great migration: A case study of southern black migration to Milwaukee, 1940-1970.” M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Gerstle, Gary (1996) “The working class goes to war,” in Erenberg, Lewis A. and Hirsch, Susan E. (eds.) The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness during World War II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 105–27.Google Scholar
Gill, Norman and Lynagh, Paula (1947) “Debt free idea loses allure.” National Municipal Review
36: 240–45, 265.Google Scholar
Gillon, Steven M. (1987) Politics and Vision: The ADA and American Liberalism, 1947-1985. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Glad, Paul W. (1990) The History of Wisconsin. Vol. 5, War, a New Era, and Depression, 1914-1940. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Glickman, Lawrence B. (1997) A Living Wage: American Workers and the Making of Consumer Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Google Scholar
Griffith, Robert (1989) “Forging America's postwar order: Domestic politics and political economy in the age of Truman,” in Lacey, Michael J. (ed.) The Truman Presidency. New York: Cambridge University Press: 57–88.Google Scholar
Grover, Michael (1994) “`All things to black folks': A history of the Milwaukee Urban League, 1919-1980.” M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Haney, Richard Carlton (1970) “A history of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin since World War Two.” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Hanson, Bertil (1961) A Report on the Politics of Milwaukee. Cambridge: Joint Center for Urban Studies of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University.Google Scholar
Hardwick, Jeff (1996) “A downtown utopia? Suburbanization, urban renewal, and consumption in New Haven.” Planning History Studies
10: 41–54.Google Scholar
Harris, Richard, and Lewis, Robert (1998)“Constructing a fault(y) zone: Misrepresentations and suburbs, 1900-1950.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers
88: 622–39.Google Scholar
Hempel, George H. (1971) The Postwar Quality of State and Local Debt. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Hirsch, Arnold R. (1983) Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hirsch, Arnold R. (1995) “Massive resistance in the urban north: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966.” Journal of American History
82: 522–50.Google Scholar
Hise, Greg (1993) “Home building and industrial decentralization in Los Angeles: The roots of the postwar urban region.” Journal of Urban History
19: 95–125.Google Scholar
Hoan, Daniel W. (1936) City Government: The Record of the Milwaukee Experiment. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.Google Scholar
Holter, Darryl (1988) “Sources of CIO success: The New Deal years in Milwaukee.” Labor History
29: 199–224.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Daniel (1996) “Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor union radicalism and feminism in Cold War America.” American Quarterly
48: 1–42.Google Scholar
Huddle, Donald L. (1997) “Post-1982 effects of neoliberalism on Latin American development and poverty: Two conflicting views.” Economic Development and Cultural Change
45: 881–97.Google Scholar
Isenberg, Alison Ellen (1995) “Downtown democracy: Rebuilding Main Street ideals in the twentieth-century city.” Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Issel, William (1989) “Business power and political culture in San Francisco, 1900-1940,” Journal of Urban History
16: 52–77.Google Scholar
Issel, William (1991) “Liberalism and urban policy in San Francisco: From the 1930s to the 1960s.” Western Historical Quarterly
22:431–50.Google Scholar
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1985) Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, Walter A. (1990) Gunnar Myrdal and America's Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938-1987. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Jarausch, Konrad H., and Hardy, Kenneth A. (1991) Quantitative Methods for Historians: A Guide to Research, Data, and Statistics. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Marilynn S. (1993) The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Johnston, Robert D. (1998) “Beyond' the West': Regionalism, liberalism, and the evasion of politics in the new Western history.” Rethinking History
2: 239–77.Google Scholar
Jones, Carolyn C. (1988) “Split incomes and separate spheres: Tax law and gender roles in the 1940s.” Law and History Review
6: 259–310.Google Scholar
Jones, Carolyn C. (1996) “Mass-based income taxation: Creating a tax-paying culture, 1940-1952,” in Brownlee, W. Elliot (ed.) Funding the Modern American State, 1941-1995: The Rise and Fall of the Era of Easy Finance. New York: Cambridge University Press: 107–47.Google Scholar
Jozwiak, Elizabeth A. (1997) “`The city of the people': Milwaukee's municipal recreation and the Socialists, 1890-1917.” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Katznelson, Ira (1986) “Working-class formation: Constructing cases and comparisons,” in Katznelson, Ira and Zolberg, Aristide R. (eds.) Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press: 3–41.Google Scholar
Kazin, Michael, and Ross, Steven J. (1992)“America's Labor Day: The dilemma of a workers' celebration.” Journal of American History
78: 1294–1323.Google Scholar
Kelley, Robin D. G. (1994) Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Kousser, J. Morgan (1973) “Ecological regression and the analysis of past politics.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History
4: 237–62.Google Scholar
Kraus, Henry (1951) In the City Was a Garden: A Housing Project Chronicle. New York: Renaissance Press.Google Scholar
Krueckeberg, Donald A., ed. (1994) The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections. 2d ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research.Google Scholar
Kunzel, Regina G. (1993) Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1890-1945. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Laberge, Marie Anne (1995) “`Seeking a place to stand': Political power and activism among Wisconsin women, 1945-1963.” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Leach, William (1991) “Brokers and the new corporate industrial order,” in Taylor, William R. (ed.) Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 99–117.Google Scholar
Lenard, Vivian P. (1967) “From progressivism to procrastination: The fight for the creation of a permanent housing authority for the city of Milwaukee, 1933-1945.” M.S. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, Nelson (1988) “The making of the postwar working class: Cultural pluralism and social structure in World War II.” Historian
51: 42–63.Google Scholar
Lipsitz, George (1994) Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Logan, John R., Whaley, Rachel Bridges, and Crowder, Kyle (1997) “The character and consequences of growth regimes: An assessment of 20 years of research.” Urban Affairs Review
32: 603–30.Google Scholar
Logan, John R., and Molotch, Harvey L. (1987) Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McDonald, Terrence J. (1985) “The problem of the political in recent American urban history: Liberal pluralism and the rise of functionalism.” Social History
10: 323–45.Google Scholar
McDonald, Terrence J. (1986) The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860-1906. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McGreevy, John T. (1996) Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Maier, Charles S. (1987) In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, Cathie Jo (1996) “American business and the taxing state: Alliances for growth in the postwar period,” in Brownlee, W. Elliot (ed.) Funding the Modern American State, 1941-1995: The Rise and Fall of the Era of Easy Finance. New York: Cambridge University Press: 353–406.Google Scholar
Mason, Jerry (1947) “Fighting the postwar blues.” This Week Magazine: Milwaukee Journal Supplement, 30 March.Google Scholar
May, Elaine Tyler (1988) Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Meisenheimer, L. G. (1943) “Milwaukee's finances from one war to another.” Municipal Finance
15: 4–10.Google Scholar
Menzer, Amy E. (1999) “Exhibiting Philadelphia's `vital center': Negotiating environmental and civic reform in a popular postwar planning vision.” Radical History Review
74: 112–36.Google Scholar
Meyer, Stephen (1992) “Stalin over Wisconsin”: The Making and Unmaking of Militant Unionism, 1900-1950. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Meyerowitz, Joanne, ed. (1994) Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Sally M. (1975) “Milwaukee: Of ethnicity and labor,” in Stave, Bruce M. (ed.) Socialism and the Cities. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press: 41–71.Google Scholar
Miller, Sally M. (1996) “The Socialist Party and `old' immigrants: The Milwaukee movement to 1920,” in Miller, Sally M. (ed.) Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in Early Twentieth-Century American Socialism. New York: Garland Publishing: 47–72.Google Scholar
Mills, C. Wright (1951) White Collar: The American Middle Classes. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Election Commissioners (1947) Nineteenth Biennial Report of the Board of Election Commissioners of the City of Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Election Commissioners (1949) Twentieth Biennial Report of the Board of Election Commissioners of the City of Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Public Land Commissioners (1945a) Industrial Trends in the Milwaukee Area: An Analysis of Manufacturing as the Economic Base in Planning for Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Public Land Commissioners (1945b) Rehabilitation Study of the Central Business Area.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Public Land Commissioners (1946) Evidences of Blight in the City of Milwaukee, by Census Tracts.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Public Land Commissioners (1947) Master Plan for the City of Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Board of Public Land Commissioners (1950) Manufacturing in Milwaukee City, Milwaukee County, and the Milwaukee Industrial Area, Wisconsin, the North Central Division of the United States: 1919-1939 Compared with 1947.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Common Council (1948) Milwaukee Annual Report, 1947. Milwaukee, WI: Municipal Reference Library.Google Scholar
Milwaukee County Community Fund and Council of Social Agencies (1945) Census Tract Facts: A Handbook of Basic Social Data of Milwaukee County, Wis. Milwaukee: Statistical Research Department.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Department of City Development (1987) South Side Neighborhood Historic Resources Survey: Final Report.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Journal and the City Club of Milwaukee (1942) How to Make Milwaukee a Better Community in Which to Live. Milwaukee: Journal Company.Google Scholar
Milwaukee Urban League (1949) Board of Directors Minutes. Reel 1. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Microfilm.Google Scholar
Mollenkopf, John H. (1983) The Contested City. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Monkkonen, Eric H. (1995) The Local State: Public Money and American Cities. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Montgomery, David (1980) “To study the people: The American working class.” Labor History
21: 485–512.Google Scholar
Nelson, Bruce (1996) “Class, race, and democracy in the CIO: The `new' labor history meets the `wages of whiteness.'“ International Review of Social History
41: 351–74.Google Scholar
Nicolaides, Becky Mariann (1993) “In search of the good life: Community and politics in working-class Los Angeles, 1920-1955.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Norman, Jack (1989) “Congenial Milwaukee: A segregated city,” in Squires, Gregory D. (ed.) Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press: 178–201.Google Scholar
Oestreicher, Richard Jules (1986) Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Oestreicher, Richard Jules (1998) “The rules of the game: Class politics in twentieth-century America,” in Boyle, Kevin (ed.) Organized Labor and American Politics, 1894-1994: The Labor-Liberal Alliance. Albany: State University of New York Press: 1998: 19–50.Google Scholar
Olson, Frederick I. (1952) “The Milwaukee Socialists, 1897-1941.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.Google Scholar
Olson, Frederick I. (1987) “City expansion and suburban spread: Settlements and governments in Milwaukee County,” in Aderman, Ralph M. (ed.) Trading Post to Metropolis: Milwaukee County's First 150 Years. Milwaukee, WI: Milwaukee County Historical Society.Google Scholar
Onkst, David H. (1998) “`First a negro.…incidently a veteran': Black World War II veterans and the G.I. Bill of Rights in the Deep South, 1944-1948.” Journal of Social History
31: 517–43.Google Scholar
Orren, Karen, and Skowronek, Stephen (1998-99) “Regimes and regime building in American government: A review of literature on the 1940s.” Political Science Quarterly
113: 689–702.Google Scholar
Patterson, James T. (1994). America's Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1994. Rev. ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Pienkos, Donald E. (1978) “The Polish Americans in Milwaukee politics,” in Pienkos, A.T. (ed.) Ethnic Politics in Urban America: The Polish Experience in Four Cities. Chicago: Polish American Historical Association: 66–91.Google Scholar
Reuss, Henry (1982) Interview. Wisconsin Democratic Party Oral History Project. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Rodgers, Daniel T. (1992) “Republicanism: The career of a concept.” Journal of American History
79: 11–38.Google Scholar
Rosenzweig, Roy (1983) Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rusk, Dean (1995) Cities without Suburbs. 2d ed. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, Mary P. (1997) Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Sanchez, George J. (1993) Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Saxton, Alexander (1997 [1958]) Bright Web in the Darkness. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Sbargia, Alberta M. (1996) Debt Wish: Entrepreneurial Cities, U.S. Federalism, and Economic Development. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Schiesl, Martin J. (1977) The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1800-1920. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Joel (1993) The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Daryl Michael (1997) Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880-1996. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Mel (1969) American City Planning since 1890. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Sharpe, William, and Wallock, Leonard (1994)“Bold new city or built-up `burb? Redefining contemporary suburbia.” American Quarterly
46: 1–30.Google Scholar
Siegel, Fred (1997) The Future Once Happened Here: New York, D.C., L.A., and the Fate of America's Big Cities. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Simon, Roger D. (1996) The City-Building Process: Housing and Services in New Milwaukee Neighborhoods, 1880-1910. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.Google Scholar
Slayton, Robert A. (1986) Back of the Yards: The Making of a Local Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Soja, Edward W. (1986) “Taking Los Angeles apart: Some fragments of a critical human geography.” Environment and Planning D
4: 255–72.Google Scholar
Somers, Margaret R. (1995a) “Narrating and naturalizing civil society and citizenship theory: The place of political culture and the public sphere.” Sociological Theory
13: 229–74.Google Scholar
Somers, Margaret R. (1995b) “What's political or cultural about political culture and the public sphere? Toward an historical sociology of concept formation.
Sociological Theory
13: 113–44.Google Scholar
Sparrow, Bartholomew H. (1996) From the Outside In: World War II and the American State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Steinberg, Marc W. (1997) “`A way of struggle': Reformations and affirmations of E. P. Thompson's class analysis in the light of postmodern theories of language.” British Journal of Sociology
48: 471–92.Google Scholar
Still, Bayard (1948) Milwaukee: The History of a City. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Stone, Clarence N. (1989) Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946-1988. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Stromquist, Shelton (1997) “The crucible of class: Cleveland politics and the origins of municipal reform in the progressive era.” Journal of Urban History
23: 192–220.Google Scholar
Sugrue, Thomas J. (1996a) The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sugrue, Thomas J. (1996b) “Segmented work, race-conscious workers: Structure, agency, and division in the CIO era.” International Review of Social History
41: 389–406.Google Scholar
Swanstrom, Todd (1985) The Crisis of Growth Politics: Cleveland, Kucinich, and the Challenge of Urban Populism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Teaford, Jon C. (1990) The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Teaford, Jon C. (1993) Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, William F. (1988) The History of Wisconsin. Vol. 6, Continuity and Change, 1940-1965. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Tien, H. Yuan, ed. (1962) Milwaukee Metropolitan Area Fact Book: 1940, 1950, and 1960. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Trotter, Joe William Jr. (1985) Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Ubriaco, Robert D. Jr. (1994) “Bread and butter politics or foreign policy concerns? Class versus ethnicity in the midwestern Polish American community during the 1946 congressional elections.” Polish American Studies
51: 5–32.Google Scholar
United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1942) 16th Census of the United States, 1940: Population and Housing Statistics for Census Tracts, Milwaukee, Wis. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1952a) 1950 United States Census of Population, Census Tract Statistics: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Adjacent Area. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1952b) 1950 United States Census of Housing: Block Statistics, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Wendt, William H. (1936) “Milwaukee's Debt Reduced in 1936.” Daily Bond Buyer, 26 December.Google Scholar
Westbrook, Robert (1990) “`I want a girl, just like the girl that married Harry James': American women and the problem of political obligation in World War II.” American Quarterly
42: 587–614.Google Scholar
Westbrook, Robert (1993) “Fighting for the American family: Private interests and public obligation in World War II,” in Fox, Richard Wrightman and Lears, T. J. Jackson (eds.) The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 194–221.Google Scholar
Wilentz, Sean (1984a) “Against exceptionalism: Class consciousness and the American labor movement, 1790-1920.” International Labor and Working-Class History
26: 1–24.Google Scholar
Wilentz, Sean (1984b) Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788-1850. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolfe, Alan (1981) America's Impasse: The Rise and Fall of the Politics of Growth. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Zeidler, Frank P. (1961a) “A Liberal in City Government: My Experience as Mayor of Milwaukee.” Local History Collection, Milwaukee Public Library.Google Scholar
Zeidler, Frank P. (1961b) “Comments in response to Bertil Hanson's A Report on the Politics of Milwaukee.”
Cambridge: Joint Center for Urban Studies of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University.Google Scholar
Zeidler, Frank P. (1985) “Milwaukee's South Side: A historical look.” Milwaukee History
8: 56–84.Google Scholar
Zieger, Robert H. (1995) The CIO, 1935-1955. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar