Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vvkck Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T09:54:50.059Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Identification With Terrorist Attack Victims: Association With Television Viewing and Prior Life Threat

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2017

Holly B. Herberman Mash ,
Carol S. Fullerton ,
K. Nikki Benevides  and
Robert J. Ursano
Holly B. Herberman Mash*
Affiliation:
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
Carol S. Fullerton
Affiliation:
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
K. Nikki Benevides
Affiliation:
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
Robert J. Ursano
Affiliation:
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to Holly B. Herberman Mash, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Department of Psychiatry, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814 (e-mail: holly.herberman-mash.ctr@usuhs.edu).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective

A series of sniper attacks in the Washington, DC, area left 10 people dead and 3 wounded. We developed and tested a model that examined the unique and interdependent relationships of sniper-related television viewing, prior life-threatening events, and parental status to identification with attack victims.

Methods

Participants were 1238 residents of the DC area (aged 18-90 years, mean=41.7 years; 51% female; 68% white) who completed an online survey that assessed identification with sniper attack victims, amount of television viewing, and prior life-threatening events. Identification was measured by using a previously developed scale that assessed to what extent participants identified victims as similar to themselves, a friend, or a family member.

Results

The relationship of television viewing to identification was examined by using multivariate linear regression analyses. In univariate analyses, female gender, having children, higher levels of television viewing, and past life-threatening events were independently related to greater identification. After adjustment for demographics and life-threatening events, sniper-related television viewing continued to be associated with identification (B=0.61, P≤0.001, ∆R2=0.07). Examination of the interactions of television viewing by parental status and television viewing by life-threatening event revealed significant relationships.

Conclusions

Attention to events preceding and during a terrorist event could help in the recognition of those at particular risk for increased identification with attack victims. These findings also have implications for recommendations for media exposure during an event. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2018; 12: 337–344)

Keywords

terrorismidentificationmedia exposuretrauma historyparental status
Type
Original Research
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 12 , Issue 3 , June 2018 , pp. 337 - 344
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc. 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Fullerton, CS, Ursano, RJ, Osuch, EA, et al. Identification and previous experience in disaster workers. In: Retterstol N, Mortensen MS, eds. Disasters and After Effects: Disaster Psychiatry in a Troubled World. Drammen, Norway: Atlantic Press; 2001.Google Scholar
2. Ursano, RJ, Fullerton, CS. Cognitive and behavioral responses to trauma. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1990;20(21):1766-1775. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01510.x.Google Scholar
3. Wayment, HA. It could have been me: vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2004;30(4):515-528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261892.Google Scholar
4. Klohnen, E, Luo, S. Interpersonal attraction and personality: what is attractive. Self-similarity, ideal similarity, complementarity, or attachment security? J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003;85(4):709-722. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.709.Google Scholar
5. Westmaas, JL, Silver, RC. The role of perceived similarity in supportive responses to victims of negative life events. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2006;32(11):1537-1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206291874.Google Scholar
6. Batson, CD, Shaw, LL. Encouraging words concerning the evidence for altruism. Psychol Inq. 1991;2(2):159-168. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0202_17.Google Scholar
7. Feldman, PJ, Ullman, JB, Dunkel-Schetter, C. Women’s reactions to rape victims: motivational processes associated with blame and social support. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1998;28(6):469-503. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01715.x.Google Scholar
8. Cetin, M, Kose, S, Ebrinc, S, et al. Identification and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in rescue workers in the Marmara, Turkey earthquake. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18(5):485-489. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20056.Google Scholar
9. Mash, HBH, Ursano, RJ, Benevides, KN, et al. Identification with terrorist victims of the Washington, DC sniper attacks: posttraumatic stress, depression, and alcohol use. J Trauma Stress. 2016;29(1):41-48. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22069.Google Scholar
10. Ursano, RJ, Fullerton, CS, Vance, K, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder and identification in disaster workers. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:353-359.Google Scholar
11. Fullerton, CS, McCarroll, JE, Ursano, RJ, Wright, KM. Psychological responses of rescue workers: firefighters and trauma. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1992;62(3):371-378. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079363.Google Scholar
12. Ursano, RJ, McCarroll, JE. The nature of the traumatic stressor: handling dead bodies. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1990;178(6):396-398. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199006000-00010.Google Scholar
13. Brown, AL, Messman-Moore, TL, Miller, AG, et al. Sexual victimization in relation to perceptions of risk: mediation, generalization, and temporal stability. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2005;31(7):963-976. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204274101.Google Scholar
14. Gump, BB, Klik, JA. The effects of a model’s HIV status on self-perceptions: a self-protective similarity bias. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 1995;21(8):827-833. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167295218005.Google Scholar
15. Busso, DS, McLaughlin, KA, Sheridan, MA. Media exposure and sympathetic nervous system reactivity predict PTSD symptoms after the Boston Marathon bombings. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(7):551-558. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22282.Google Scholar
16. Pfefferbaum, B, Nixon, SJ, Tivis, RD, et al. Television exposure in children after a terrorist incident. Psychiatry. 2001;64(3):202-211. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.64.3.202.18462.Google Scholar
17. Silver, RC, Holman, EA, Andersen, JP, et al. Mental- and physical-health effects of acute exposure to media images of the September 11, 2001, attacks and the Iraq War. Psychol Sci. 2013;24(9):1623-1634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612460406.Google Scholar
18. Frieze, IH, Hymer, S, Greenberg, MS. Describing the crime victim: psychological reactions to victimization. Prof Psychol Res Pr. 1987;18(4):299-315. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.18.4.299.Google Scholar
19. Helweg-Larsen, M, Shepperd, JA. Do moderators of the optimistic bias affect personal or target risk estimates? A review of the literature. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2001;5(1):74-95. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0501_5.Google Scholar
20. Beauchesne, MA, Kelley, BR, Patsdaughter, CA, Pickard, J. Attack on America: children’s reactions and parents’ responses. J Pediatr Health Care. 2002;16(5):213-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5245(02)00012-3.Google Scholar
21. Cicchetti, D, Toth, SL, Lynch, M. The developmental sequelae of child maltreatment: implications for war-related trauma. In: Leavitt LA, Fox NA, eds. The Psychological Effects of War and Violence on Children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1993:41-71.Google Scholar
22. Kennedy, C, Charlesworth, A, Chen, J-L. Disaster at a distance: impact of 9.11.01 televised news coverage on mothers’ and children’s health. J Pediatr Nurs. 2004;19(5):329-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2004.09.003.Google Scholar
23. Schuster, MA, Stein, BD, Jaycox, LH, et al. A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(20):1507-1512. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200111153452024.Google Scholar
24. Fullerton, CS, Gifford, RK, Flynn, BW, et al. Effects of the 2002 sniper attacks on the homeless population in Washington, DC. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2009;3(3):163-167. https://doi.org/10.1097/DMP.0b013e3181aa2675.Google Scholar
25. Fullerton, CS, Mash, HBH, Benevides, KN, et al. Distress of routine activities and perceived safety associated with post-traumatic stress, depression, and alcohol use: 2002 Washington, DC, sniper attacks. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2015;9(5):509-515. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2015.67.Google Scholar
26. Grieger, TA, Fullerton, CS, Ursano, RJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol use, and perceived safety after the terrorist attack on the Pentagon. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(10):1380-1382. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.54.10.1380.Google Scholar
27. Grieger, TA, Fullerton, CS, Ursano, RJ, et al. Acute stress disorder, alcohol use, and perception of safety among hospital staff after the sniper attacks. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54(10):1383-1387. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.54.10.1383.Google Scholar
28. Schulden, J, Chen, J, Kresnow, M-J, et al. Psychological responses to the sniper attacks: Washington, DC area, October 2002. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31(4):324-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2006.06.014.Google Scholar
29. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows. Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp; 2013.Google Scholar
30. Balasinorwala, VP, Shah, N. Acute stress disorder in victims after terror attacks in Mumbai, India. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(5):462. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.195.5.462.Google Scholar
31. Janke-Stedronsky, SR, Greenawalt, DS, Stock, EM, et al. Association of parental status and diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder among veterans of Operations Iraqi and Enduring Freedom. Psychol Trauma. 2016;8(1):72-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000014.Google Scholar
32. Holloway, HC, Ursano, RJ. The Vietnam veteran: memory, social context, and metaphor. Psychiatry. 1984;47(2):103-108. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1984.11024232.Google Scholar
33. Cardeña, JE, Dennis, M, Winkel, M, et al. A snapshot of terror: acute posttraumatic responses to the September 11 attacks. J Trauma Dissociation. 2005;6(2):69-84. https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v06n02_07.Google Scholar
34. Marshall, RD, Bryant, RA, Amsel, A, et al. The psychology of ongoing threat: relative risk appraisal, the September 11 attacks, and terrorism-related fears. Am Psychol. 2007;62(4):304-316. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.304.Google Scholar
35. Silver, RC, Holman, EA, McIntosh, DN, et al. Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological response to September 11. JAMA. 2002;288(10):1235-1244. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.10.1235.Google Scholar
36. Torabi, MR, Seo, DC. National study of behavioral and life changes since September 11. Health Educ Behav. 2004;31(2):179-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198103259183.Google Scholar
37. Ahern, J, Galea, S, Resnick, H, et al. Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry. 2002;65(4):289–300. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.65.4.289.20240.Google Scholar
38. Breslau, N, Bohnert, KM, Koenen, KC. The 9/11 terrorist attack and posttraumatic stress disorder revisited. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010;198(8):539-543. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181ea1e2f.Google Scholar
39. Schlenger, WE, Caddell, JM, Ebert, L, et al. Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the National Study of Americans’ Reactions to September 11. JAMA. 2002;288(5):581-588. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.5.581.Google Scholar
40. Holman, EA, Garfin, DR, Silver, RC. Media’s role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(1):93-98. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1316265110.Google Scholar
41. Pillow, DR, Cassill, MEM. Media exposure, perceived similarity, and counterfactual thinking: why did the public grieve when Princess Diana died? J Appl Soc Psychol. 2001;31(10):2072-2094. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00164.x.Google Scholar
42. Perrin, A, Duggan, M. Americans’ internet access: 2000-2015. Pew Research Center. http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/06/26/americans-internet-access-2000-2015/. Published 2015. Accessed December 21, 2016.Google Scholar
43. Sax, LJ, Gilmartin, SK, Bryant, AN. Assessing response rates and nonresponse bias in web and paper surveys. Res Higher Educ. 2003;44(4):409-432. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024232915870.Google Scholar