Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T00:59:47.577Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

RESEARCH ARTICLE: Water Shortage, Food Security, and Virtual Water in China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 August 2013

Leah Sherwood
Leah Sherwood*
Affiliation:
Research Associate, Institute for International and Civil Security, Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
*
Leah Sherwood, Institute for International and Civil Security, Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research, Abu Dhabi Campus, PO Box 127788, United Arab Emirates; (phone) +971-2-501-8415; (fax) +971-2-447-2442; (e-mail) leah.sherwood@kustar.ac.ae
Get access

Abstract

In China, water shortage and water pollution are pronounced challenges. The limited water resources are poorly managed. Despite a lack of water, China is committed to being food self-sufficient, which requires extensive irrigation. The paradoxical ambitions of reducing water shortage and promoting food self-sufficiency are supported by technological innovation and costly engineering projects. Yet, these attempts will ultimately fail to bridge the gap between water demand and supply. China's continued economic growth presents difficult problems and new prospects in the context of water and food security. On one hand, a growing number of wealthier, urban Chinese consumers are demanding water-intensive food products, which cannot be sustainably produced in China in light of heavy irrigation requirements and continued population growth. On the other hand, the economic growth opens a window of opportunity for China to include virtual water trade as a component of its water policies. China is reluctant to embrace this trade because it perceives it to have a negative effect on its national security. It appears that China's security axis must shift. It cannot maintain its growing population and economy while preserving current levels of water, food, and national security simultaneously. A policy change is needed. It is argued, therefore, that the policy relevance of virtual water trade must be addressed, and the water shortage–induced imperative of food imports must be given appropriate attention.

Environmental Practice 15:253–261 (2013)

Type
Features
Information
Environmental Practice , Volume 15 , Issue 3 , September 2013 , pp. 253 - 261
Copyright
Copyright © National Association of Environmental Professionals 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amarasinghe, U., Giordano, M., Liao, Y., and Shu, Z.. 2005. Water Supply, Water Demand and Agricultural Water Scarcity in China: A Basin Approach. Country Policy Support Programme (CPSP). Sustainable Economic Development Department, National Policy Environment Division, Government of the Netherlands, 26 pp. Available at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Assessment/files_new/research_projects/ICID_China_A_Basin%20Approach.pdf.Google Scholar
Asia Pacific Forum, Awaji Conference Japan. 2005, August 6. Awaji Conference Statement. Kobe, Japan. http://www.hemri21.jp/awaji-conf/english/statement/2005.html.Google Scholar
Atlin, C. 2010, March 5. Exploring the Potential Relationship between Sustainability Assessment and Cultural Conflict through the Chinese Western Development Policy. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada, 67 pp. Available at https://uwaterloo.ca/environment-resource-studies/sites/ca.environment-resource-studies/files/uploads/files/Atlin-490WDPApr1910.pdf.Google Scholar
Bloomberg News. 2012, January 17. China's Urban Population Exceeds Countryside for First Time. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-17/china-urban-population-exceeds-rural.html.Google Scholar
Bouffard, E. 2013. The Cost of Development: The Three Gorges Dam. Global Research, February 8. Available at http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-cost-of-development-the-three-gorges-dam/5322405.Google Scholar
Butts, K. 1997. The Strategic Importance of Water. Parameters, Spring, 65–83. Available at http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/97spring/butts.htm.Google Scholar
China Daily. 2013, January 22. China Allocates Funds for Spring Grain Production. Available at http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2013-01/22/content_16152005.htm.Google Scholar
Dalina, C., Konara, M., Hanasaki, N., Rinaldo, A., and Rodriguez-Iturbe, I.. 2012. Evolution of the Global Virtual Water Trade Network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 109(16):5989–5994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Fraiture, C., Cai, X., Amarasinghe, U., Rosegrant, M., and Molden, D.. 2004. Does International Cereal Trade Save Water? The Impact of Virtual Water Trade on Global Water Use. Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, Research Report 4. International Water Management Institute, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka, 32 pp. Available at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Assessment/files/pdf/publications/ResearchReports/CARR4.pdf.Google Scholar
Falkenmark, M., and Lannerstad, M.. 2005. Consumptive Water Use to Feed Humanity: Curing a Blind Spot. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 9(May):15–28. http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/9/15/2005/hess-9-15-2005.html.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falkenmark, M., Lundquist, J., and Widstrand, C.. 1989. Macro-scale Water Scarcity Requires Micro-scale Approaches: Aspects of Vulnerability in Semi-arid Development. Natural Resources Forum 13(4):258–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fan, H., Huang, H., and Zeng, T.. 2006. Impacts of Anthropogenic Activity on the Recent Evolution of the Huang (Yellow) River Delta. Journal of Coastal Research 22(4):919–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, F.M. 2002. Water Value, Water Management and Water Conflict: A Systematic Approach. GAIA 11(3):187–190. Available at http://economics.mit.edu/files/2639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gale, F., Tuan, F., Hsin, H.H., and Gilmour, B.. 2002, April, updated May 26. China's Food and Agriculture: Issues for the 21st Century. Agriculture Information Bulletin AIB-775. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib-agricultural-information-bulletin/aib775.aspx.Google Scholar
Gopalkarishnan, M. 2004. A Change in Dietary Habits Can Significantly Change Virtual Trade Balances. Hindu, June 6. http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mag/2004/06/06/stories/2004060600150200.htm.Google Scholar
Hao, H., and Jun, X.. 2005. Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities. In Sustainable Water Management for Large Cities, Savic, D.A., ed. International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) Publication 293. IAHS, Wallingford, UK, 125–131.Google Scholar
Hoekstra, A., ed. 2003, February. Virtual Water Trade: Proceedings on the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade, Delft, The Netherlands, December 12–13 2002. Value of Water Research Report Series no. 12. UNESCO–IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands, 243 pp. Available at http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf.Google Scholar
Hoekstra, A. 2006, July. The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Nine Reasons for Global Water Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local Water Problems. Value of Water Research Report Series no. 20. UNESCO–IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands, 33 pp. Available at http://doc.utwente.nl/58371/.Google Scholar
Huang, J., and Rozelle, S.. 2009, November. Agricultural Development and Nutrition: The Policies behind China's Success. Occasional Paper no. 19. World Food Programme, Rome, 41 pp. Available at http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/newsroom/wfp213339.pdf.Google Scholar
Jiang, Y. 2009. China's Water Scarcity. Journal of Environmental Management 90(11):3185–3196. Available at https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/hebrew-university/Literature/Jiang-JEM2009.pdf.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jin, L., and Young, W.. 2001. Water Use in Agriculture in China: Importance, Challenges, and Implications for Policy. Water Policy 3(3):215–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, J., Cao, G., and Zheng, C.. 2010. Sustainability of Groundwater Resources in the North China Plain. In Sustaining Groundwater Resources: A Critical Element in the Global Water Crisis, Jones, J.A.A., ed. International Year of Planet Earth. Springer Netherlands, Houten, The Netherlands, 69–88.Google Scholar
Liu, J., Cao, G., and Zheng, C.. 2011. Sustainability of Groundwater Resources in the North China Plain. In Sustaining Groundwater Resources: A Critical Element in the Global Water Crisis, Jones, J.A.A., ed. International Year of Planet Earth. Springer Netherlands, Houten, The Netherlands, 69–87.Google Scholar
Liu, J., and Savenije, H.H.G.. 2008. Food Consumption Patterns and Their Effect on Water Requirement in China. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 5(1):27–50. http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/5/issue1.html.Google Scholar
Liu, J., Wiberg, D., Zehnder, A., and Yang, H.. 2007. Modeling the Role of Irrigation in Winter Wheat Yield, Crop Water Productivity, and Production in China. Irrigation Science 26(1):21–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, J., Zehnder, A., and Yang, H.. 2007. Historical Trends in China's Virtual Water Trade. Water International 32(1):78–90.Google Scholar
Lohmar, B., Gale, F., Tuan, F., and Hansen, J.. 2009. China's Ongoing Agricultural Modernization: Challenges Remain after 30 Years of Reform. Economic Information Bulletin 58316. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC, 51 pp. Available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib51.aspx.Google Scholar
Mekonnen, M., and Hoekstra, A.. 2010, December. The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Farm Animals and Animal Products, volume 1: Main Report. Value of Water Research Report Series no. 48. UNESCO–IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, 43 pp. Available at http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report-48-WaterFootprint-AnimalProducts-Vol1.pdf.Google Scholar
Mekonnen, M., and Hoekstra, A.. 2011, May. National Water Footprint Accounts: The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Production and Consumption, volume 1: Main Report. Value of Water Research Report Series no. 50. UNESCO–IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, 44 pp. Available at http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report50-NationalWaterFootprints-Vol1.pdf.Google Scholar
Ministry of Water Resources, People's Republic of China. 2007. The 11th Five-Year Plan of National Water Resources Development. Gazette of the Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China, pp. 34–48.Google Scholar
Moya, P., Hong, L., Dawe, D., and Chen, C.. 2004. The Impact of On-farm Water Saving Irrigation Techniques on Rice Productivity and Profitability in Zhanghe Irrigation System, Hubei, China. Paddy and Water Environment 2(4):207–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nath, P. 1999. Poverty Alleviation and Food Security in Asia: Lessons and Challenges, annex 3: Agricultural Policy and Food Security in China. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP) Publication 1999/1. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, New York, 175 pp. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/004/ab981e/ab981e00.pdf.Google Scholar
National Bureau of Statistics, People's Republic of China. 2009. China's Grain Output 1978–2009: National Bureau of Statistics Plan Report. In China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press, Beijing. Available at http://www.chinability.com/Grain.htm.Google Scholar
Obuobie, E., Gachanja, P.M., and Dorr, A.C.. 2005, November. The Role of Green Water in Food Trade. University of Bonn, Bonn, 20 pp. Term paper for the interdisciplinary course International Doctoral Studies. Available at http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/downloads/forum/docprog/Termpapers/2005_3_D_rr_Obuobie__Gachanja.pdf.Google Scholar
Schneider, K. 2011. Choke Point: China—Confronting Water Scarcity and Energy Demand in the World's Largest Country. Circle of Blue, February 15. Available at http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2011/world/choke-point-chinaconfronting-water-scarcity-and-energy-demand-in-the-worlds-largest-country/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stalker, P. 2000. Handbook of the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 401 pp.Google Scholar
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2010. China: Geography, Climate and Population. FAO, Rome. Available at http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/china/index.stm.Google Scholar
Wong, S. 2007. Running on Empty: China Bets on Massive Water Transfers to Solve Crisis. World Rivers Review 22(4):10. Available at http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/wrr_december2007-5.pdf.Google Scholar
World Water Council (WWC). 2004, March. E-Conference Synthesis: Virtual Water Trade—Conscious Choices. WWC Publication 2. WWC, Marseille, France, 23 pp.http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/wwc/Programs/Virtual_Water/virtual_water_final_synthesis.pdf.Google Scholar
Xie, J. 2009. Addressing China's Water Scarcity: Recommendations for Selected Water Resource Management Issues. World Bank, Washington, DC, 160 pp. Available at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2585.Google Scholar
Yang, H. 2001. Water, Environment and Food Security: A Case Study of the Haihe River Basin in China. Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, Dübendorf, 10 pp. Available at http://www.inbo-news.org/IMG/pdf/Water_in_China_Haihe.pdf.Google Scholar
Yong, J., and Chen, B.. 2010, August 10. Water Scarcity: China. In Encyclopedia of Earth, C.J. Cleveland, ed. Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC. Available at http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_scarcity_-_China.Google Scholar
Zhao, J., Liu, W., and Deng, H.. 2005. The Potential Role of Virtual Water in Solving Water Scarcity and Food Security Problems in China. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 12(4):419–428.Google Scholar
Zheng, C., Liu, J., Cao, G., Kendy, E., Wang, H., and Jia, Y.. 2010. Can China Cope with Its Water Crisis?—Perspectives from the North China Plain. Ground Water 48(3):350–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zheng, H., Wang, Z., Calow, R., and Wei, Y.. 2012. Water Rights Allocation, Management and Trading in an Irrigation District: A Case Study of Northwestern China. In Problems, Perspectives and Challenges of Agricultural Water Management, Kumar, M., ed. InTech, New York, 65–90. Available at http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/31497/InTech-Water_rights_allocation_management_and_trading_in_an_irrigation_district_a_case_study_of_northwestern_china.pdf.Google Scholar