Notation in the Algorithmic Arts

Notations are by nature incomplete, often describing continuous expressions in terms of discrete, symbolic operations. How can abstract symbols generalize gestures, with all of their nuanced timing and qualities? This question gets to the heart of how we can notate movement. Choreography can be seen as the organization of gestures in space and time, and yet despite well-known attempts, there is no widely adopted choreographic notation. Reflecting on this, we look to develop notation for algorithmic choreography that is specific to a particular dance. Bringing computer programming closer to dance can connect coding and moving in a creative feedback loop. However, we first need to lay conceptual ground for our approach to this work by challenging some pervasive assumptions that we believe hold the algorithmic arts back.

Complexity from Simplicity

If we embrace computation and determinism, and reject automation and predictability, what is left to work with in terms of creative material? Our answer is an approach that focuses on perceiving the complex and unpredictable results of simple pattern-making processes. We use the word complex with care, however. Where artists engage with computation, there may be an assumption that they are doing complex, unfathomable things. We argue that this is a failure to grasp the affordance of computation as a means to generate and experience complex forms from simple structures. Two examples support this: a contemporary bitfield pattern and a heritage weaving pattern, shown side-by-side in figures 1 and 2. Figure 1 shows a “bitfield” rendering of the function (x ^{^} y) % 9 == 0 for each (x, y) point in two-dimensional space. ^{Footnote 3} The ^ operator stands for a bitwise exclusive-or, ^{Footnote 4} and % for modulo or remainder of a division. By aligning the bits of two “x” and “y” numbers, combining them with this Boolean operation, and painting the respective pixel white where the result divides equally by 9, an interference pattern is revealed. Figure 2 shows a similar interference pattern, but from handweaving. ^{Footnote 5} Interference is again set between x and y directions (which weavers refer to as weft and warp, respectively). This pattern arises from a matrix multiplication of the binary values from the shaft loom configuration shown at the top, the feet movements (treadling) shown on the right, and the connection between them (tie up) in the top right. The resulting weaving pattern (seen in figure 2 as the darker elements of the pattern) shares visual similarities with the bitfield pattern on the left, despite the manner of construction being very different. However, we should give proper respect to the far older and more developed craft of weaving. There is much more that we could vary in the weaving block design, for example by introducing a pattern to the selection of color across the warp and weft threads. Also bear in mind that this two-dimensional design represents an entanglement of threads into three dimensions, a process that creates visual and physical properties far more complex than what is represented in two dimensions on the screen. But still, the family resemblance between these computational crafts, one contemporary and one ancient, is striking.

Figures 1 & 2

Bitfield pattern (image by Martin Kleppe) and a traditional “Earl’s Canvas” weaving pattern (image courtesy of Denise Kovnat), both two-dimensional algorithmic patterns.

Although perhaps simple, these coded patterns provide very rich ground to explore. This is the affordance of language—instructions as elements that can be mixed together and rearranged in a multitude of ways, as interoperable fragments that may be abstracted or recursively embedded, creating a generative, combinatorial explosion of possibility. Its unpredictability means that every change might feel like a step into the dark; but where the results are immediately generated, as in the practice of live coding, ^{Footnote 6} each change can instead feel like switching on a light.

Focusing on computation but not automation, and deterministic procedures but not predictability, clears the way to seek notations for algorithms that represent rules for humans to follow through tacit, embodied engagement with movement.

Histories of Notating Movement

Reviewing related historical and contemporary approaches to movement notation allowed us to reflect upon and bring together the different histories of code and choreography. A key reference point in the representation and notation of human exertion as effort can be found in Effort: Economy in Body Movement written by choreographer Rudolf Laban in collaboration with management consultant F.C. Lawrence in 1947. The book proposes a systematic, seemingly elegant way to categorize human efforts in movement, through a combination of elements such as time, weight, and space. Effort is as applicable to industrial time-and-motion studies as it is to dance choreography. We should also note that Laban’s earlier work was as choreographer for Hitler and Goebbels, until his work on the 1936 Olympic games was rejected (the Nazis rejecting Laban, rather than vice versa). While this theory arose from white supremacy and Fordism, it continues to be influential in choreographic research and practice.

In South Indian Carnatic dance, spoken syllables are used to represent different movements, strung together to form movement phrases or jatis. These syllables may be written as notation to aid memory, but the emphasis is very much on orality, with different, overlapping sets of syllables associated with different dance styles (Seth 2017). This approach extends also to Carnatic music, for which syllables are central to the concept of rhythm, applied both to represent drumming articulations (e.g., on the mridangam) or directly in vocal performance, a practice known as konnakol. These ancient, yet still actively developing dance and music traditions pose a challenge for our otherwise Western-centric view of notation; a set of nonlexical syllables are used as symbols that represent gestures, but in spoken rather than written form. Because our interest is in live notation, where a written notation is transient, changing along with the piece it represents, this challenge is central to our ongoing work.

One example of a live notation system in stage choreography is Michael Klien and Nick Rothwell’s late 1990s choreo/graph system. Choreo/graph provides a live score that is visible to dancers on screens at the sides of the stage. The system allows the dance to be changed in real time while being performed, most notably in Michael Klien’s 2002 duet, Duplex (deLahunta Reference deLahunta2002) at Theater am Turm (TAT) in Frankfurt with dancers from William Forsythe’s company. Here a cueing system gave dancers either sequences of choreographic material or tasks to manipulate the movement. The liveness of this notational score demonstrates a digital system for dance that changes during the performance rather than a fully set piece created via algorithmic processes.

Live notation was also the name of a research network bringing together live coders and performers of live art. ^{Footnote 7} McLean convened the live notation network in collaboration with live artist Hester Reeve (McLean and Reeve Reference McLean and Reeve2012), with Sicchio as a core member able to bridge coding and dancing through her performance practice. A far-reaching outcome of this exchange came from the recognition of a shared approach that project member Emma Cocker identified as kairotic coding (2014). She provided a philosophical reflection on the role of notation in live improvisation, using the mythological figure of Penelope’s unweaving as the metaphor for a notation that can be unraveled and rewritten. This prefigured collaborative work with weaver and mathematician Ellen Harlizius-Klück, work that took the connection between live coding and weaving further, beyond metaphor into direct correspondence (Cocker Reference Cocker2017).

With these examples in mind, drawing on concepts from dance notation around documenting gesture, representing the ephemeral as in konnakol, and live notation that changes during performance (as with choreo/graph), we began to explore how to create a programming language for live coding the movement of humans and robot performers. Through the approach of live coding, which allows for continuous decision-making in both generating and responding to algorithmic patterns, we can generate choreography, through computational but not automated processes. By bringing robots into the work as performers, we seek connections between humans and machines through language and movement, bound together in liveness.

Live Coding Robotic Performance

Our work in algorithmic choreography as collaborators working at a distance between Richmond, Virginia, USA (Sicchio) and Sheffield, UK (McLean), builds upon our in-person collaborations while previously living in the same city (Sicchio and McLean Reference Sicchio and McLean2017). At such a distance, it was perhaps natural to explore choreographic notation of robotic movement, and we did so using off-the-shelf ROBOTIS components (AX=12A servo motors, controlled via an Arduino interface). ^{Footnote 8} We worked with two identical robots, one in each of our studios, with each robot having three servo motors, thereby providing three “degrees of freedom” (see fig. 2). Despite Sicchio’s prior and ongoing work with choreographing robots (Sicchio et al. Reference Sicchio, Martin, Dietzel and Olivio2022) and our earlier collaborations, we decided to come to this work afresh, reapproaching algorithmic choreography by thinking through practice.

We began by triggering movements of our robots using the Strudel live coding environment for algorithmic pattern (Roos and McLean Reference Roos and McLean2023), ^{Footnote 9} which is a port of the TidalCycles open source live coding system. ^{Footnote 10} Despite being on different continents, we were able to work in the same editor via the Flok live coding environment, ^{Footnote 11} which is designed for network music. Flok allows multiple people to code simultaneously within the same editor, where each participant has their own “cursor.” When someone triggers a live edit, the running code is automatically updated on all participating computers. Despite being designed for making music, the combination of the Strudel javascript environment and Flok editor works for patterning servo motor activity as it does for sound.

This initial configuration therefore created the following chain of action, each link having a different bearing on the result:

Being a live coding editor, the Flok system allows the creation and manipulation of code while it runs (Blackwell et al. Reference Blackwell, Emma Cocker, McLean and Magnusson2022). Because the development of that code forms the structure of a piece, live coding performances tend towards a progressive build up and reduction of structural complexity, without sudden changes or shifts. Although largely designed for making music, the Strudel language is essentially a system for combining sequences and transformations, at multiple scales, in order to generate algorithmic patterns. Its use therefore tends towards generating complex patterns from simple parts, with broken symmetries that at first may seem arbitrary but through repetition reveal an underlying structure. So already, the live coding editor and language environment provide affordances for us to explore.

Ceding Control

We could stop here in framing our piece at the notational level of the live coding environment. To do so would be to focus on the notation of movement, rather than the movement itself and its influence on the human dancers and choreographers. Indeed, this is how we initially approached control of our robots, looking for ways to pinpoint a position in space using the notation, instructing each robot to move to that position, through a technique called inverse kinematics. This extreme level of control is made possible with robots, in that what you write on the computer is what you get.

On closer examination though, such an approach to notation as a technology of control ^{Footnote 12} is a losing battle. Firstly, in our case, it is not possible for the end point of a robot (i.e., the end of its “nose”) to move to any given point in space; each robot only has three motors, configured as a mechanical waist (bottom motor), back (middle motor), and head (top motor), respectively. Because the base of each robot is fixed to a table, it can only contort to certain positions. Even if the robot was free to reach any point that we might want it to, we would still have to carefully consider its physical characteristics. It takes time to move; so to reach a particular point at a particular time, you have to start early. If you move too fast, the robot will overshoot, and resonate back and forward until it settles into the intended position. With servo motors, fast movements are also extremely noisy. We found the more we attempted to exert control over our robot through precise instructions, the more such uncontrollable, unwanted elements intruded on the work. So we instead worked with the robotic quirks as creative material, exploring issues of vibration and timing as resonances and rhythms that are intrinsic to the robot, offering up material affordances that we chose to embrace rather than work against.

Figure 3.

One of our robots, created from three ROBOTIS servo motors coupled with standard fixings, creating three degrees of freedom. (Photo by Alex McLean)

Thus, in order to work with any robot, we first need to understand its physical constraints, using these as creative material to work with. Indeed, this is true also when working with humans. For example, percussionist Jaki Liebezeit, the founder of the experimental band Can, developed an approach to drumming with a notation based on the binary dot-dash familiar to morse code (Podmore Reference Podmore2020). The constraints of this system were based on the observation that in order to perform a louder “accented” strike of the drum, the hand needs to move the drumstick further, up and then down, which takes additional time. Liebezeit’s system therefore worked on the interplay between left and right hands, where due to the laws of physics, an accent with one hand requires time provided by a preceding double movement with the other hand. From these simple rules, complex rhythms and paradiddles are generated. Accordingly, rather than seeing the physical constraints of a human or robotic agent as getting in the way of an ideal notated piece, we take physical constraints as a starting point, therefore providing a rich creative space in which to work. So what did our robots do? How did they dance?

Robots Dancing

As mentioned earlier, we each have one robot, sitting on our respective desks in Richmond and Sheffield, made from off-the-shelf servo motors. These motors not only allow external control over where they travel, how fast, and with how much power, but also allow the computer to sense its current position, and the pressure applied to it. These physical properties present a number of constraints. For example, it isn’t possible to increase the speed of the robots without increasing the noise that it makes. The robot also isn’t able to move around or across the surface to which it is mounted. More subtly, care should also be taken to avoid overusing certain movements that wear out the components by overheating them or overstressing interconnecting wires.

Such physical properties offer us a number of choices in deciding how we interact with the robot, for example:

1. 1. If the robot is already moving to a position when you tell it to move to a new one, should it complete its current move, or immediately adjust its course?

2. 2. Should the robot simply move as quickly as possible to the new position, or should its speed follow a particular curve of acceleration and deceleration as it reaches its goal?

3. 3. Should a movement be expressed in terms of the average speed of movement, or in terms of the time the movement should take?

4. 4. Relatedly, should a movement be timed in terms of when the robot arrives at its target position, or in terms of when the movement begins?

5. 5. How about relative movements, like “switch sides,” or “move halfway to the ground”—should these movements be relative to the current target position of the moving robot, or to the current position?

To a large extent, all of these constraints and choices apply just as well to humans as to robots, with the exception that human muscles tend to move more quietly than servo motors—but human movements have their noises too, such as gasps, squeaks, and clicks. The primary difference then is that with robot performers, answers to such questions tend towards control, and with human ones, the answers tend towards respecting human agency. In considering them together, we are therefore able to make these choices explicit and open to interrogation.

As live coding language designers, we work by defining ways of making things, via the creation of a notation. This means that once we identify choices such as the five above, we are able to defer those choices by turning them into an option, codified as a parameter to a computer language function. This allows us to not only make these choices during a live performance, but change our minds, or even write code to vary the choice over time, following its own pattern.

In our case, we made the choices that most respected the characteristics of the robots we were working with. Our goal was to find movements that were interesting choreographic materials, rather than direct instructions. This relates to what Tim Ingold (Reference Ingold2011) criticizes as hylomorphism, where a maker forces their ideas on material, rather than working with material through creative feedback. For example, considering choice 5 above, if we instruct a robot to “switch sides,” it should move a servo until it mirrors its starting position; but what if we quickly tell it to switch sides again, while it is still moving? If we respect the imaginary world of the notation, the robot should go back to where it started, but if we respect the physicality of the robot, the robot should switch sides relative to its current position. In the latter case, if we keep interrupting its movements with the same “switch sides” instruction, each movement will be of a shorter distance until the robot settles at its center, orthogonal to the ground. By respecting and perhaps embodying the robot in this way, we have discovered a new gesture afforded by it, a movement that resonates and settles.

From Sequence to Pattern: Introducing the Robot to the Audience

The syntax of our language consisted of parts of the robot or body, predetermined gestures, and spatial-temporal relations. Our robots consisted of three motors, which we earlier loosely referred to as “head,” “waist,” and “back.” Through initial explorations we created a small collection of simple gestures including “move,” “lean,” “switch,” “toggle,” and “reset.” Other higher order movements such as “sway,” “wiggle,” and “diagonaltwist” were added later, described in the programming language in terms of the composition of basic electronic waveforms (e.g., sine, sawtooth, and square waves; white or perlin noise) directed to the different motors. The distance by which the motor would move and the duration of the movement were also programmable for each gesture. A simple program to move the top motor of the robot to 25% of its range over a quarter of a second would look something like this:

Figure 4.

Robot shown performing in front of its code at the International Conference on Live Coding, Utrecht 2023. (Photo courtesy of Paulus van Dorsten)

This code could be looped, and new gestures, timings, and spatial commands could be added, creating compound movements with unique and often surprising characteristics. We could then quickly develop sequences of evolving gestures by combining movements. By harnessing the expressivity of Strudel we were able to not only sequence the movements of the robot, but start to create more complex patterns through transformation and combination of the robot’s movement. This allowed a series of gestures to be performed and combined at different scales, allowing patterning of choice or probability.

As part of this work we presented a live coding choreographic performance at The International Conference on Live Interfaces in June 2022, organized by conference chair Adriana Sá and CICANT at Universidad Lusófona in Lisbon, Portugal. ^{Footnote 13} During the performance McLean was in Sheffield and Sicchio in Chicago, both using the networked Flok editor to program movement and sound, while using video conferencing to engage with the Lisbon audience.

In this telematic performance we introduced our live notation techniques first as a score for audience participation, introducing our robots only later in the piece. The piece began with us sharing our screen with the audience in Lisbon, projected onto the back wall of the largely empty stage of the concert hall. A camera was also set on the stage for us to view how the audience was moving, allowing us to live code their gestures. Different actions were highlighted, with the instructions patterned by our code read out loud by a text-to-speech synthesizer. These instructions were simple to begin with, for example “move your head 35% over 5 seconds.” To accompany the choreography and audio directions, minimal, patterned musical rhythms were live coded by McLean.

We asked the audience to participate in performing these patterned movements, instructed via the code. To facilitate this, the performance began with simple instructions, building up into a structured sequence. But as the piece progressed, more complex movements were created, by composing the simple sequences together and transforming them with multiple patterning functions. The audience attempted to learn and perform the movements in real time as they grew in complexity. As the audience began to struggle to keep up with the live coded choreographic instructions, we revealed an additional window on the screen. In this square the robot was shown to the audience for the first time, following the same live coding instructions that had been given to the audience. In its particular way, the robot was able to continue to perform the actions as instructed even as the movements grew more complex. ^{Footnote 14}

The interpretation of such code from human to robot feels very different when compared to from human to human. Some people were sitting and some were standing. Some did a gesture once and paused, while others looped the movement over and over. Some became single-minded in completing the instructions even when they became more and more complex and difficult to perform because there was no time to break instructions down into smaller pieces. Most humans gave up, sat back and watched as the piece progressed. However, the robot was able to take on each code change without difficulty. Its dance was not limited to its ability to keep up with the algorithmic changes in the system as the work progressed from sequences to patterns. While the notation remained relatively simple, it generated a complexity that only machine movement could execute live in real time.

But still, we humans were “in the loop” as choreographers of the robotic movements, responding to them by live coding. Within the narrative structure of the piece, in particular the building up of patterns, and the reveal of the robot joining the audience in executing the code, all the instructions for patterning movement were improvised by us as live choreographer-programmers. By placing ourselves as humans improvising with computational movement, rather than automating movement as a prepared script, we created and manipulated patterns throughout the piece, responding to each subjective moment in time. While the robot may highlight differences between human and machine performers, the live coding process demonstrates the human labor of notation, and the ways in which we can author and guide computation through a close, tacit understanding of movement.

The future of this work includes workshopping a notational system that allows for further computational real-time notations focusing on movement for the robot as well as movement for human dancers. We aim to continue jumping between fleshy and robotic movements to understand the relationship between them, and are already working to compare and contrast efforts between human and machine expression.

Developing Notation through Use

Our design process for the next iteration of our notation is now focused on the movements of each of the individual servo motors as curves over time, combined into whole gestures. Rather than a goal-directed approach, such as our initial experiment with inverse kinematics, we begin with movement qualities of each individual motor, and then progress to combine those qualities to discover whole gestures that emerge when the three motors move together to form a gestalt, greater than the sum of its parts. These gestures then form the basis of our choreographic vocabulary.

The aim however isn’t a fixed set of gestures that are then sequenced into a piece. Performing one gesture followed by another is one key way of combining gestures, but there are many more ways to combine them, and then to combine those combinations. For example, because a gesture is described as numbers changing over time in the code, it makes sense to combine two gestures by simply adding (or multiplying) successive numbers from each together. Or, the gestures could be segmented, and then interlaced, one with another. These may seem like abstract operations, but they are well grounded in the algorithmic underpinnings of the long history of craft, as illustrated in our examples comparing weaving and bitfield patterns. Combining otherwise simple elements opens up creative ground for choreographic exploration.

We also are interested in interactions between the human choreographer/performers and the robots within a performance. One way to facilitate this back and forth of movement is through the use of sensors to detect movement from the humans and map this onto the robots. We are developing the use of accelerometers to shape both the movement of the robot during the performance and the underlying tempo. This might affect the overall impulse of the robot’s motion or just one of the three motors at a time, again allowing for combinatorial actions within the robot’s choreography. This approach provides an opportunity to explore patterned movement not only on a single robot, but as live feedback between humans and robots.

Conclusion/Exhaustion

Ironically, automation is exhausting. As we already noted with reference to Bainbridge (Reference Bainbridge1983), automated processes must be supervised by an expert, but the usual hands-off nature of automation means that an expert’s vigilance wanes, and through disengagement, eventually their expertise wanes too. We have explored an alternative to automation, where live code as higher-order notation is placed in the same cybernetic loop as human and/or robotic movement. Here the code does not control the movement, but rather induces it by describing unpredictable (yet deterministic) patterned movements. The live coder responds to those movements by manipulating the code, to the point that the code follows from the movement, as much as the movement follows from the code.

What code does in this configuration is make an explosion of possibilities explicit. Language is combinational in that given a fairly small number of elements and an expressive syntax, there are a very large number of possibilities in which those elements can be arranged. When these language elements represent transformations of pattern, by combining those transformations together we find a practically inexhaustible supply of new patterns to explore.

When we share our live code manipulations then, we are sharing a kind of collective wealth that Mark Fisher argues capitalism is set up to block: “Real wealth is the collective capacity to produce, care and enjoy. […] This is Red Plenty […] Everything for everyone. All of us first” (Fisher Reference Fisher2018). We share code, and changes to it, as we explore the pattern that results. Anyone can take a snapshot of that code, and make a minor adjustment to make something totally new. Scarcity vanishes.

This generation of collective wealth from patterns is not new—it is the basis of much traditional craft. For example, a textile fragment such as the iron age card-woven fragment found in the salt mines of Hallstatt, Austria, may have a complex structure, but that structure can be “read” to reveal the movement-code used to construct it (Griffiths et al. Reference Griffiths, McLean and Griffiths2022). So here we join a wider movement to reconnect contemporary technology with its basis in ancient craft, making both old and new culturally expressive technology more open to change.

Discussion of technology, craft, and exhaustion brings the industrial Luddite movement to mind. Live coders have been compared to Luddites for valuing human craft over automation in their practice (McLean Reference McLean2017). Indeed, live coding has been characterized by Colombian psychologist Camilo Andrés Hoyos Lozano (Reference Lozano2022) as a technology of post-work because of its particular relationship with automation, its free/open source ethos, and its capability to restructure rules as they are followed. Live coder and researcher Alejandro Franco Briones (Reference Briones2023) sees similar possibilities for live coding in resisting marketization and supporting emancipation.

But still, our project to date is limited by the conventional, off-the-shelf robotic technology that we use. This technology is expensive, reliant on both exploited labor and on supply chains made fragile by ongoing environmental collapse and resulting health emergencies. However, there is no shortage of electronics to be found in e-waste stockpiles, including motors. For our next steps then, we will look for ways to apply our work to repurposed servo motors, adjusting to an open hardware approach. Or if all else fails, we can still return to apply our notations solely to human movement.