Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4hhp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-12T16:54:12.444Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Researching the Civil Rights and Liberties of Western Muslims

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2016

Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Suspicion of Muslim minorities in Western countries did not start with the attacks of September 11, 2001. The post 9/ll period, however, amplified existing prejudice. Muslims have come under intense scrutiny on the chance that they might be terrorists and have been targeted by most of the counter-terrorist measures adopted since then. In the United States, the initial objective was to catch foreign radicals, as illustrated by the FBI’s massive investigation called “PENTTBOM” which sought to identify aliens involved in the attacks. Additional measures such as the Absconder Apprehension Initiative (AAl) and the implementation of the National Security Entry-Exit registration System (NSEERS), adopted in 2002, targeted foreign Muslims. The enactment of new statutory provisions designed to identify and apprehend foreign terrorists was soon followed by a catch-all strategy targeting all Muslims living in the US. Furthermore, the broad definition of what constitutes a terrorist threat (as developed by the 2001 PATRIOT Act, the 2005 REAL ID Act, and the 2007 Protect America Act) has allowed US authorities to extend the list of terrorist offenses–leading to increased infringement on civil liberties in the name of security. Governmental discrimination also fueled prejudice against Muslims by providing ajustification for anti-Muslim sentiments. A large section of the public welcomed racial/ethnic profiling and various measures limiting the civil rights and the civil liberties of Muslims as a way to improve homeland security.

Type
Special Section: Researching Western Muslims
Information
Review of Middle East Studies , Volume 46 , Issue 2 , Winter 2012 , pp. 200 - 215
Copyright
Copyright © Middle East Studies Association of North America 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Works Cited

Abbas, T., editor. 2005. Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure. London: Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Claire, AdidaLaitin, David, and Valfort, Marie-Anne. “Integration into Europe: Identifying a Muslim Effect.” Available online at http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/wgape/papers/17_Adida.pdf.Google Scholar
Akram, Susan M., and Johnson, Kevin R.. 2002. “Race, Civil Rights and Immigration Laws after September 11: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims.” New York University Annual Survey of American Law 58 (3): 295–355.Google Scholar
Alsayyad, N., and Castelles, M., editors. 2002. Muslim Europe or Euro-Islam. Politics, Culture and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Aluffi, Roberta, and Zincone, Giovanna, editors. 2004. The Legal Treatment of Islamic Minorities in Europe. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
American Civil Liberties Union. 2002. Safe and Free in Times of Crisis. Washington, DC: ACLU.Google Scholar
American-Arab Discrimination Committee (ADC). 2003. Report on Hate Crimes and Discrimination Against Arab Americans: The Post-September Backlash—September 11, 2001 to October 11, 2002. Washington: ADC Research Institute.Google Scholar
Amiraux, V. 2004. “Restructuring Political Islam: Transnational Belonging and Muslims in France and Germany.” In Transnational Political Islam: Religion, Ideology and Power, Karam, A., editor. London: Pluto Press, 28–57.Google Scholar
Arab American Institute Foundation. 2002. Profiling and Pride: Arab American Attitudes and Behavior Since September 11. Washington, DC: AAIF.Google Scholar
Ayers, John W., and Hofstetter, Richard C.. 2008. “American Muslim Political Participation Following 9/11: Religious Belief, Political Resources, Social Structure, and Political Awareness.” Politics and Religion (l) 1: 3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagby, Ihsan A. 2005.”Imams and Mosque Organization in the United States: A Study of Mosque Leadership and Organizational Structure in American Mosques.” In Muslims in the United States: Identity, Influence, Innovation, Strum, Philippa, editor. Washington: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.Google Scholar
Bagby, Ihsan A. 2004. “The Mosque and the American Public Square.” In Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square, Bukhari, Z.H., Nyang, Sulayman S., Ahmad, Mumtaz, and Esposito, john L., editors. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt, and Dana, Karam. 2010. “The American Muslim Voter: What Explains Voting When Nobody Cares?” Paper presented for the 2010 APSA Conference. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt, and Bozonelos, Dino. 2009. “Democrat, Republican, or None of the Above? The Role of Religiosity in Muslim American Party Identification.” Politics and Religion 2:200–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, Matt, Masuoka, Natalie, and Sanchez, Gabriel. 2008. “Discrimination and Group Consciousness among Muslim Americans.” Presented at the Western Political Science Association. San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Bonnefoy, L. 2003. Public Institutions and Islam: A New Stigmatization. ISIM Newsletter (12).Google Scholar
Boubeker, A. 2008. “Time to Deradicalise? The European Roots of Muslim Radicalization.” The International Spectator 43 (3): 85–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braman, Eileen. 2009. Law, Politics and Perception: How Policy Preferences Influence Legal Reasoning. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Braman, Eileen, and Sinno, Abdulkader. 2009. “An Experimental Investigation of Causal Attributions for the Political Behavior of Muslim Candidates: Can a Muslim Represent You?” Politics and Religion 2: 247–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brysk, A., and Shafir, G., editors. 2007. National Insecurity and Human Rights: Democracies Debate Counterterrorism. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Cainkar, Louise. 2010. “American Muslims at the Dawn of the 21st Century: Hope and Pessimism in the Drive for Civic and Political Inclusion.” In Muslims in the West, Cesari, Jocelyne, editor, 176–197. London, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cainkar, Louise. 2009. Homeland Insecurity: The Arab American and Muslim American Experience after 9/ll. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Cainkar, Louise. 2002. “No Longer Invisible: ‘Arab and Muslim Exclusion after September 11’.” Middle East Report 224: 22–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for Human Rights and Global Justice (CHR&GJ). 2007. “Americans on Hold: Profiling, Citizenship, and the ‘War on Terror’.” New York: CHR&GJ (NYU School of Law).Google Scholar
Cesari, Jocelyne. 2004. When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and the United States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cesari, Jocelyne., editor. 2010. Muslims in the West after 9/ll. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cesari, Jocelyne, and McLoughin, S., editors. 2005. European Muslims and the Secular State. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Chang, Nancy, and Kabat, Alan. 2004. Summary of Recent Court Rulings on Terrorism-Related Matters Having Civil Liberties Implications. New York: Center for Constitutional Rights.Google Scholar
Chebel d’Appollonia, Ariane. 2012. Frontiers of Fear: Immigration and Insecurity in the United States and Europe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chebel d’Appollonia, Ariane. “Process and Integration Issues.” In Managing Ethnic Diversity after 9/11: Integration, Security and Civil Liberties in Transatlantic Perspective, Chebel d’Appollonia, Ariane, and Reich, Simon, editors, 114–136. Newark: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Chesney, Robert. 2003. “Civil Liberties and the Terrorism Prevention Paradigm: The Guilt by Association Critique.” Michigan Law Review 101:1408–1452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, David. 2003. Enemy Aliens: Double Standards and Constitutional Freedoms in the War on Terrorism. New York, London: The New Press.Google Scholar
Cole, David, and Dempsey, James. 2002. Terrorism and the Constitution: Sacrificing Civil Liberties in the Name of National Security. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). 2002. “The Status of Muslim Civil Rights in the United States: Stereotypes and Civil Liberties.” Washington, DC: CAIR.Google Scholar
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). 2009. “The Status of Muslim Civil Rights in the United States: Seeking Full Inclusion.” Washington, DC: CAIR.Google Scholar
Eck, Diana L. 2002. A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation. New York: Harper San Francisco.Google Scholar
Edley, Christopher. 2003. “The New America Dilemma: Racial Profiling Post 9/11.” In The War on Our Freedoms: Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism, Leone, Richard C. and Anri, Greg, editors, 170–192. New York: The Century Foundation.Google Scholar
Ericson, Davi, editor. 2011. The Politics of Inclusion and Exclusion: Identity Politics in Twenty-First Century America. New York, London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). 2002. “Anti-Islamic Reactions in the EU after the Terrorist Acts Against the USA.” Vienna: EUMC.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). 2005. The Impact of July 2005 London Bomb Attacks on Muslim Communities in the EU. Vienna: EUMC.Google Scholar
European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). 2006. Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia. Vienna: EUMC.Google Scholar
Fekete, Liz. 2009. A Suitable Enemy: Racism, Migration and Islamophobia in Europe. London and New York: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Fekete, Liz. 2004. “Anti-Muslim Racism and the European Security State.” Race & Class 46 (l): 3–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fetzer, J. S., and Soper, J. C.. 2005. Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Finn, John. 2010. “Counterterrorism Regimes and the Rule of Law: The Effects of Emergency Legislation on Separation of Powers, Civil Liberties, and Other Fundamental Constitutional Norms.” In The Consequences of Counterterrorism, Crenshaw, Martha, editor, 33–93. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Geaves, R., Gabriel, T., Haddad, Y. Y., and Smith, J. I., editors. 2004. Islam and the West: A Post September 11th Perspective. London: Ashgate.Google Scholar
General Accounting Office (GAO). 2004. Homeland Security: Justice Department’s Project to Interview Aliens after September 11. Report: GAO-03-459 5.Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck., Smith, Jane I., and Moore, K.. 2006. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today. New York: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, Smith, Jane I., and Esposito, John L., editors. 2003. Religion and Immigration: Christian, Jewish and Muslim Experiences in the United States. Creek, Walnut, CA: Rowman AltaMira.Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, editor. 2002. Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Smith, Jane I., editors. 2002. Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible. Oxford: Altamira Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagopian, Elaine C. 2004. Civil Rights in Peril: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims. Chicago: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar
Henderson, Nicoleet al. 2006. Law Enforcement and Arab American Community Relations after September 11,2001. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Herding, Maruta. 2010. Muslims in European Politics. Euro-Islam. Info (available at http://www.euro-islam.info/key-issues/political-representation/).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2002. “Presumption of Guilt: Human Rights Abuses of Post-September 11 Detainees.” Human Rights Watch 14 (4).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2005. “Witness to Abuse: Human Rights Abuses under the Material Witness Law Since September 11.” Human Rights Watch 97 (2).Google Scholar
Hunter, S.T., editor. 2002. Islam, Europe’s Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape. Westport CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Iftikhar, A. 2008. “Presumption of Guilt: September 11 and the American Muslim Community.” In Keeping Out the Other: A Critical Introduction to Immigration Enforcement Today, Brotherton, D.C. and Kretsedemas, , editors, 108–137. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ignatieff, Michael. 2004. The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ireland, P. 2000. “Reaping What They Sow: Institutions and Immigrant Political Participation in Western Europe.” In Challenging Immigration and Ethnic Relations Politics, Koopmans, R. and Statham, P., editors, 233–282. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Islamic Human Rights Commission (IHRC). 2010. Annual Report 2009–2010. Available at http://www.ihrc.org.uk/attachments/9486_IHRC-Annual%20Report-V08.pdf.Google Scholar
Jackson, R. 2007. “Constructing Enemies: Islamic Terrorism in Political and Academic Discourse.” Government and Opposition 43(3): 394–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jalalzai, Farida. 2009. “The Politics of Muslims in America.” Religion and Politics 2:163–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jamal, Amaney. 2005. “The Political Participation and Engagement of Muslim Americans: Mosque Involvement and Group Consciousness.” American Politics Research 33: 521–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joly, Danielle, Beckford, James A. and Khosrohavar, Farhad. 2007. Les musulmans en prison en Grande-Bretagne et en France. Louvain: Presses universitaires de Louvain.Google Scholar
Kaya, Ayhan. 2009. Islam, Migration, and Integration: The Age of Securitization. London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khosrokhavar, Farhad. 2004. L’islam dans les prisons. Paris: Editions Balland.Google Scholar
Klausen, Jytte. 2005. The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Koening, M. 2007. “Europeanising the Governance of Religious Diversity. An Institutionalist Account of Muslim Struggles for Public Recognition.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33 (6): 911–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraler, A. 2007. “The Political Accommodation of Immigrant Religious Practices: Special Admission for Ministers of Religion.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33 (6): 945–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurence, Jonathan, and Vaïsse, Justin, editors. 2006. Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France. Washington: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Leone, Richard, and Anrig, Greg, editors. 2003. The War on Our Freedoms. New York: The Century Foundation.Google Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. 2004. Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Martinez-Ebers, V. and Dorraj, M.. 2010. Perspectives on Race, Ethnicity, and Religion: Identity Politics in America. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Maussen, Marcel. 2006. The Governance of Islam in Western Europe. A State of the Art Report. IMISCOE Working Paper 16:1–94.Google Scholar
McLoughlin, S. 2005. “The State, New Muslim Leadership and Islam as a Resource for Public Engagement in Britain.” In European Muslims and the Secular State.]. Cesari, and McLoughlin, S., editors. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Moddod, T., Triandafyllidou, A., and Zapata-Barrero, R., editors. 2006. Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: European Approach. London and New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monshipouri, Mahmood. 2010. “The War on Terror and Muslims in the West.” In Muslims in the West after 9/ll. Cesari, Jocelyne, editor. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
MSRG Special Report. 2004. Restriction on Civil Liberties, Views of Islam, and Muslim Americans. Ithaca: Cornell University Media & Society Research Group edition.Google Scholar
Nelson, David, editor. 2009. Racial Profiling. Detroit: Greenhaven Press/Gale, Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Nyiri, Zsolt. 2010. “The Clash of Perceptions: Comparison of Views among Muslims in Paris, London, and Berlin with Those among the General Public.” In Managing Ethnic Diversity after 9/ll: Integration, Security and Civil Liberties in Transatlantic Perspective, d’Appollonia, Ariane Chebel, and Reich, Simon, editors, 98–113. Newark: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Office of Inspector General (OIG), U.S. Dept. Justice. 2003. The September 11 Detainees: A Review of the Treatment of Aliens Held on Immigration Charges in Connection with the Investigation of the September 11 Attacks.Google Scholar
Pfaff, S., and Gill, A.J.. 2006. “Will a Million Muslims March? Muslim Interest Organizations and Political Integration in Europe.” Comparative Political Studies 39 (7): 803–828.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peňa, Aisha. 2007. “Protecting Muslim Civil and Human Rights in America: The Role of Islamic, National, and International Organizations.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 27 (3): 387–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pew Hispanic Center. 2007. Changing Faiths: Latinos and the Transformation of American Religion.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2011. Muslim Americans: No Sign of Growth in Alienation or Support for Extremism.Google Scholar
Rath, J., Penninx, R., Groenendjik, K., and Meijer, A., 2001. Western Europe and its Islam. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohe, M. 2006. Muslim Minorities and the Law in Europe: Chances and Challenges. New Delhi: Global Media Publishers.Google Scholar
Salvatore, A. 2004. “Making Public Space: Opportunities and Limits of Collective Action among Muslims in Europe.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 30 (5): 1013–1031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulhofer, Stephen J. 2002. The Enemy Within: Intelligence Gathering, Law Enforcement, and Civil Liberties in the Wake of September 11. Century Foundation Press Report.Google Scholar
Shadid, W.A., and van Koningsveld, P.A., editors. 2002. Religious Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of Islam in the European Union. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
Sinno, Abdulkader. 2008. Muslims in Western Politics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Statham, P. 2004. “Resilient Islam: Muslim Controversies in Europe.” Harvard International Review 26 (3): 54–61.Google Scholar
Statham, P., Koopmans, R., Giugni, M., and Passy, F.. 2005. “Resilient or Adaptable Islam? Multiculturalism, Religion and Migrants’ Claims-Making for Group Demands in Britain, the Netherlands and France.” Ethnicities 5 (4): 427–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terry, Janice. 2006. “Arab-American Political Activism and Civil Liberties in the Post 9/ll Era.” In American Arabs and Political Participation, Strum, Phillipa, editor, 117–129. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.Google Scholar
Tessler, Mark. 2003. “Arab and Muslim Political Attitudes: Stereotypes and Evidence from Survey Research.” International Studies Perspectives 4 (2): 175–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom, Schulhofer, Stephen, and Huq, Aziz. 2010. “Legitimacy and Deterrence Effects in Counter-Terrorism Policing: A Study of Muslim Americans.” New York University Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers. Paper 182. URL available at http://lsr.nellco.org/nyu_plltwp/182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaïsse, Justin. 2008. “Muslims in Europe: A Short Introduction.” In US-Europe Analysis Series, 1–6. Washington, D.C.: Center on the United States and Europe at Brookings.Google Scholar
Vertovec, S., and Peach, C., editors. 1997. Islam in Europe: The Politics of Religion and Community. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walzer, Michael. 2002. “Equality and Civil Society.” In Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society, Chambers, S. and Kymlicka, W., editors, 34–49. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Warner, CM., and Wenner, M. W.. 2006. “Religion and the Political Organization of Muslims in Europe.” Perspectives on Politics 4 (3): 457–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zogby, J.J. 2006. “The Civil Rights of Arab American Muslims are Being Violated.” In At Issue: Islam in America, Egendorf, L. K., editor, 46–52. New York: Greenhaven Press.Google Scholar