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11 - Student Migration
- Marco Martiniello
- Edited by Jan Rath
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- Book:
- An Introduction to International Migration Studies
- Published by:
- Amsterdam University Press
- Published online:
- 14 January 2021
- Print publication:
- 13 December 2012, pp 259-280
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Summary
Introduction
Are students who study abroad migrants? Ask them and they will probably say ‘no’. (Unless, perhaps, they are students of migration!) They see themselves as ‘international’ or ‘visiting’ students. Their own migratory experiences are far removed from the general perception of migrants as poor and marginalised workers. And yet, by the conventional definitions and statistical criteria of migration, such students are migrants. They have crossed an international frontier and are living in another country, often with a different culture and language, for a significant period of time – perhaps six months, one year, three years or more. Their different lengths of stay reflect the various schemes and regimes of student mobility, such as a semester or year abroad, an entire degree programme, a work placement or a ‘gap year’.
Migration researchers often overlook student migration, viewing it as transient and insignificant. The OECD (2006) estimates that there are 2.7 million international students worldwide. This is a very small fraction of the total stock of migrants, which was 200 million in 2008 (IOM 2008: 2). However, three things enhance the importance of student migration beyond its minimal share in the global total. First, student migration is increasing four times faster than total world migration – by 52 per cent compared to 13 per cent from 1998 to 2004. Second, student migration, like highly skilled migration in general, has important economic, social and cultural effects, given the elite background of most internationally mobile students. Third, experiencing migration as a student has a powerful influence on subsequent propensities for migration throughout the rest of life.
On another analytical scale, deeper structural forces power international student migration. One of these is the accelerating internationalisation of higher education. The formerly elite world of universities has been caught up in globalisation, spurred by the revolutionary advances in communication technology of the last two to three decades. On the economic front, university education has become a multibillion dollar global business. Advanced nations now compete to attract talent for the future. International student mobility is stimulated by political and cultural factors as well. The European Union's student exchange programmes, for example, emphasise the cultural benefits of study abroad. Among their objectives is to foster a ‘European’ identity and create a cadre of multilingual ‘Eurocrats’ loyal to the project of a united Europe (King and Ruiz-Gelices 2003).
15 - Emerging trends
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- By Stephen Castles, University of Wollongong, Allan M. Findlay, University of Dundee, Chan Kwok Bun, National University, Ong Jin Hui, National University, Ronald Skeldon, University of Hong Kong, Mark J. Miller, University of Delaware, Josef Gugler, University of Connecticut, Giovanna Campani, University of Florence, Rainer Bauböck, Institute for Advanced Studies in Vienna, Gil Loescher, University of Notre Dame
- Edited by Robin Cohen, University of Warwick
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Survey of World Migration
- Published online:
- 05 December 2012
- Print publication:
- 02 November 1995, pp 507-560
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Summary
The purpose of Part 15 is threefold: first, to draw attention to new forms and patterns of world migration; second, to cover aspects of migration that gained only passing expression in the previous Parts of the Surveys and, finally, to assess the significance of global migration flows from ethical and political standpoints.
Often, of course, new forms of migration turn out to be older forms in fresh disguise. Thus it is with contract-labour migration, which Castles succinctly defines as ‘temporary international movements of workers, which are organized and regulated by governments, employers or both’. As he notes, such migration has plenty of precedents – from the Asian indentured labour described in Part 2, the ‘foreign Poles’ who were recruited for industrial work in nineteenth-century Germany, the mine workers in South Africa and the Bracero Program in the USA, to the western European ‘guest-worker’ system. The intention of the employers and the government was twofold: to avoid any long-term commitment to the contracted migrants (thus allowing hiring and firing to match the economic cycles) and to inhibit settlement (thus reducing social costs and lessening the chance of resentment by the local workforce). These two desiderata still remain for many firms and governments. Source countries are now mainly in Asia (a region that provided nearly 12 million contract workers worldwide in the period 1969–89), though, as Castles shows, the Middle East has now declined in importance as a destination area in the wake of the Gulf War and the growth of demand in the emerging hothouse economies of Asia itself.
The effects of reducing the remating interval after parturition on the reproductive performance of the commercial doe rabbit
- G. G. Partridge, S. J. Allan, M. Findlay, W. Corrigall
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- Journal:
- Animal Production / Volume 39 / Issue 3 / December 1984
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 September 2010, pp. 465-472
- Print publication:
- December 1984
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Four groups of does (16 per group) were remated either 1, 7, 14 or 21 days after parturition over a 1-year production cycle. Doe mortality rate was independent of treatment and overall was 0·27. The remating interval after parturition had no effect on conception rate, which was high on all treatments (0·86 to 0·93). The high overall conception rate resulted in more litters being born as the parturition to remating interval decreased. Expressed on a common 365-day experimental period the number of litters per doe was 8·9, 8·5, 7·8 and 6·7 (average s.e. of difference 0·33) for treatments 1, 7, 14 and 21 respectively. Litter size was not significantly affected by treatment and consequently the number of pups born per doe per year increased as remating interval decreased: 75·0, 73·4, 67·4 and 591 respectively. Pup mortality rate at birth and subsequently was high (0·42) on all treatments and the number of pups weaned per doe per year for treatments 1, 7, 14 and 21 was 48·3, 43·5, 40·0 and 33·3 respectively. Pup birth weight, 21-day litter weight and weaning (25-day) weight were all unaffected by treatment, as was doe body-weight change.