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5 - Cabaret Sequences in Hindi Films
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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- 15 February 2018
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- 30 January 2016, pp 139-168
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Summary
This chapter focuses on songs from a select cross section of cabaret scenes in Hindi cinema between 1943 and 1951, when a stylistic continuity in film music called filmi, or “film-style,” took shape. It will concentrate on the work of four composers—Naushad Ali, C. Ramchandra, and the composer duo commonly referred to as Shankar-Jaikishan—and explore their compositional approach to cabaret song-dance sequences, especially their exploration of Hollywood film music. It is well-known that Hollywood influenced some early composers working in Hindi films. Thus, rather than contextualize a broad relationship between the music of Indian and American cinema, this chapter analyzes the stylistic approach to sixteen songs from twelve Hindi films and focuses specifically on elements whose origins probably come from commercialized American music. Here it suggests that much of the acclimatization of Hollywood film music into these songs involved musical exchange between composers, composers and producers, and composers and local jazz musicians—an ongoing process in which these and other stakeholders in Hindi cinema borrowed identifiable musical material from each other, not just from Hollywood. In this process, it briefly explores the character of live cabarets in Bombay and details a correlation between their overarching thematic structure and the development and originality of on-screen cabaret productions. The chapter focuses on cabaret segments in films with a separate performance area and audience, typically in a club or other formal venue with food, drink, or dance. It does not address symphonic-style music heard outside of these cabaret scenes.
Before beginning, it is important to note that the film song industry has long been translocally oriented, embracing material from the subcontinent and beyond. I follow Hindi film music scholar Jayson Beaster- Jones's suggestion that film songs are cosmopolitan in nature, rather than ostensibly Westernized, and I support his argument that film songs embody “mediated musical material within and beyond the local, in whatever way the local is constituted by producers and audiences.” Media, technologies, and other commercial and noncommercial resources that supported the proliferation of American music that I have discussed in previous chapters constituted at least a small part of the historical development of cabaret song-dance sequences in Hindi films, especially Hollywood's film industry and Bombay's jazz economy.
Index
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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- 30 January 2016, pp 231-242
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American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
- Bradley G. Shope
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- Published by:
- Boydell & Brewer
- Published online:
- 15 February 2018
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- 30 January 2016
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American Popular Music in Britain's Raj is the first systematic study to address the character and scope of American popular music in India during British rule. Drawing on ethnographic and archival research, it examines blackface minstrel shows, ragtime, jazz, and representations of Hollywood film music in Bombay cabarets and Hindi film songs, identifying key musical moments in the development of these styles between the middle 1800s and the middle 1900s, outlining the entertainment idioms and frameworks that supported their growth, and examining a variety of historical contexts under colonialism that influenced their meaning and commercial value.
Focusing on Calcutta (modern Kolkata), Lucknow, and Bombay (modern Mumbai), Bradley Shope traces the movement of music across time and space -- including between the United States, England, and India -- and addresses a variety of groups and communities, including the US military in Calcutta during World War II, Anglo-Indians in Lucknow in the 1930s and 1940s, and British residents across North India in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Bradley G. Shope is assistant professor of music at Texas A & M-Corpus Christi.
Bibliography
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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3 - Calcutta in the War
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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- 30 January 2016, pp 85-108
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Summary
Thousands of Allied troops arrived in India between 1941 and 1945, and the United States occupied military stations throughout the country to support a massive force. These war efforts, part of the China-Burma-India theater of operations, created a military economy in India that increased the market for Western entertainment. By late 1943 in Calcutta, optimism about victory had become prevalent, and large numbers of Allied soldiers stationed in the city were enjoying live music, Hollywood moving pictures, gramophone recordings of jazz, and English-language radio broadcasts. This chapter focuses on the influence of the Allied military's entertainment economy on jazz production, dissemination, and consumption between 1943 and 1945. It frames the war in a transnational setting by suggesting that the American and British militaries were catalysts for entertainment globalization, and captures a historical moment during a time of penetrating and somewhat unconventional human movement into the city. It discusses military radio broadcasting, local jazz gramophone disc markets, the scope of military entertainment, and the contextualizing forces that brought meaning to jazz.
For local music industries and infrastructures to be economically successful, there must be large numbers of customers, adequate resources to economize on production costs, and significant density of human capital. Wartime Calcutta had gramophone recording studios and production plants, music stores to sell instruments, radio broadcasting infrastructures, local and foreign musicians, and tens of thousands of troops with money to spend on diversions, all of which supported a dynamic market for Western entertainment during the war. The military administration supported live and mechanically reproduced music for troops in both military venues and commercial enterprises, thus reformulating entertainment economies and reframing the market for jazz. A secondary argument of this chapter is that the active process of embracing globalized popular music sometimes involves ignoring or remaining uncommitted to local concerns. Partially borrowing from Pat J. Gehrke's idea of “uncommitted localism,” I suggest that we sometimes withdraw from local concerns in our quest for cosmopolitan encounters, which in this chapter includes Western entertainment in elite clubs, and I claim that during the Bengal famine of 1943–44, patrons of Firpo's Restaurant and Bar, arguably among the leading jazz establishments in Calcutta, gave meaning and context to entertainment vis-à-vis social ills associated with the famine.
Contents
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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Acknowledgments
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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List of Figures
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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Notes
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Afterword
- Bradley G. Shope
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It is clear that Britain's Raj supported the commercial potentials of American music in India and played a vital role in the social, economic, and political processes embedded in the entertainment infrastructures discussed in this book. The British preference for Western music, foods, and other commodities stimulated trade and exchange with much of the Anglophone world. When their political, social, and economic authority eroded during World War II, so did a portion of the demand for Western entertainment. At the beginning of the book, I note that American blackface minstrel performer Dave Carson succeeded in 1865 in part because when the global trade balance broke down after the price of cotton shares crashed in Bombay, he used the event for performance material. Humorous references to the cotton crisis were an effective marketing strategy to appeal to European and British audiences. Yet after the crisis, the British remained in India, people eventually began to make money again, and the music continued. Eighty years later, when the economic and political authority of the Raj was operating on shakier grounds during World War II, enthusiasm diminished for entertainment in India associated with Europeans and British—two of the most visible communities to engage American popular music.
This demise left many musicians and connoisseurs disillusioned. I interviewed Lucknow guitarist James “Jumbo” Perry dozens of times, and I was able to collect a number of personal history narratives attesting that he was strongly distressed about the decline of jazz after the war in Lucknow, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. He asserted that after Independence he found the audience dramatically reduced and the market weakened. He once lamented to me that playing music for people who did not appreciate jazz was challenging: “To play my music is a crime if a person I'm playing it for doesn't understand one thing I'm playing. So I'm a bloody fool for playing it. You follow? I'm playing absolutely modern, and I'm seeing modern. And it's real jazz.” Perry is speaking about the 1950s and 1960s as the jazz scene in Lucknow all but evaporated, and he was especially frustrated by the lack of an audience that appreciated the intricacies of his music.
Frontmatter
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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1 - Entertainment Globalization, 1850s to 1910s
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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This chapter addresses the practical capacity of blackface minstrelsy and ragtime to constitute a significant portion of Western entertainment in India in the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In this era of transnational entertainment networks and new mechanical reproduction technologies, these styles of music spread unevenly, yet consistently, across India. This chapter shows that regimental bands and ballroom dances supported the entertainment needs of British and Europeans in India, and asserts that commercial structures and social capital associated with these entertainments facilitated demand for music from the United States. In this process it comments on the spread of printed music, musical instruments, and musicians, and outlines the role of ballroom dances and regimental bands in their proliferation. It then focuses on blackface minstrel shows in the 1800s and ragtime at the turn of the century, detailing their scope and character, including the role of theater venues, gramophone recordings, and foreign entertainment troupes. This chapter concentrates on music whose audiences were primarily British, Europeans, or English speaking Indians, and suggests that blackface minstrel shows and ragtime were transnational styles that reached India almost from their beginnings.
For audiences in India, knowledge of the African American origins of blackface minstrel shows and ragtime—including cultural, historical, and geographical roots—represented select knowledge of the history of black America. Blackface minstrel performances encompassed many characteristics—comedy, parody, acrobats, and mischief—but also exemplified the recent history of slavery in the United States. Ragtime embodied many attributes—antecedents in “coon” songs, an emphasis on syncopation, and prevalence in American brass bands—and was sometimes considered rooted in the black minstrel or slave music idioms. Accurate or not, these links to African American origins signified black exoticism which was important to value construction and cosmopolitan meaning. Furthermore, as I mention in the introduction to this book, blackface minstrelsy and ragtime were popular in India in many respects because they were popular in England, especially London, and they represented adherence to musical trends in both Great Britain and the United States. Thus, this chapter expands on my earlier discussions of the trilateral musical links between India, England, and the United States.
4 - The Case of Lucknow
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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- 30 January 2016, pp 109-138
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Summary
This chapter presents a case study of Lucknow, an interior capital city in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. Lucknow is smaller than Bombay, Calcutta, and New Delhi, yet by the mid-1930s new entertainment enterprises facilitated a market for jazz in Hazratganj, a commercial area known for the exchange of European and British goods and services. By World War II, cafe and cinema hall proprietors were building dance floors and local entrepreneurs had established new performance venues on a thoroughfare in Hazratganj now called Mahatma Gandhi Marg. These venues included the Ambassador Club (previously a skating rink), the Mayfair Ballroom, the Soldier's Club (built for Allied troops), the Silver Slipper, the Blue Haven, and many others. This chapter explores how a small city in interior India enjoyed a lively jazz scene by the time of World War II. It emphasizes personal history narratives that I collected from now elderly individuals in Lucknow, and focuses on Mahatma Gandhi Marg and its smaller adjacent streets in the 1930s and 1940s. I cite oral histories collected from Anglo-Indian and Goan dance organizers, venue proprietors, community leaders, and musicians. Sometimes I include narratives from avid enthusiasts. The Anglo-Indian and Goan communities represented a large slice of the market for jazz in Lucknow beginning in the mid-1930s, and they regularly patronized the Mayfair Ballroom, Ambassador Club, and other venues.
Indian Civil Service (ICS) week in Lucknow in the early and mid-1930s supported the early proliferation of jazz. This weeklong festival featured a wide variety of entertainment and sports, and the British were probably the largest community in attendance. The first ongoing performances of jazz were organized during this week in a small number of venues catering to ICS week participants, including Valero's, the Mahomed Bagh Club, and the Racecourse bandstand. Tourism associated with ICS week stimulated commerce in Hazratganj, and the flow of cash into the pockets of music venue proprietors and musicians during the festival was crucial to the spread of jazz in Lucknow throughout the course of the year. I finish the chapter by outlining the role of American troops in broadening the scope of jazz performances in Hazratganj during the last two years of the war.
Filmography and Discography
- Bradley G. Shope
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2 - Technologies, Exoticism, and Entrepreneurs, 1920s and 1930s
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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- 30 January 2016, pp 53-84
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Summary
Jazz traversed India and influenced audiences and music makers of all backgrounds, and successful musicians navigated this diversity conscious of its business potentials, engaging commercial realities and estimating audience demand as necessary. The African American vocal group Plantation Quartet used Hollywood representations of black American music to promote identification with global culture. Performing in Calcutta, Bombay, and elsewhere, this group used Hollywood film songs and so-called darky promotional images to contextualize their performances in blackface minstrel and antebellum plantation histories. The most successful musicians in the 1920s and 1930s often exhibited keen business skills and marketing savvy. Ken Mac first heard jazz in 1921 at the Cavalry School in Saugor (modern Sagar) while on holiday, and he later became a key jazz figure in India. The school is located in interior India, far from the larger urban centers more typically associated with the development of jazz and other transnational commercial enterprises. After this performance, Mac learned to play the drum set by listening to imported gramophone recordings from the United States, and his music studies at the Lawrence Royal Military School in Sanawar provided resources for his early successes in jazz performance. Saxophonist Micky Correa started his work in the jazz music business in Lahore and moved to Bombay in 1938 to perform at elite venues and network with African American musicians. His band's success in Lahore required learning effective advertising strategies to target the European consumer base. This chapter will address the work of Correa, Mac, the Plantation Quartet, and other jazz musicians, and articulate how sound technologies, film, entrepreneurial activity, and exoticism associated with African American musicians supported popular music in the 1920s and 1930s.
On November 10, 1934, the Plantation Quartet (sometimes called the Deep South Boys or the Taj Quartet) performed at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in Bombay. The group was composed of African American jazz musicians Creighton Thompson, Crickett Smith, Rudy Jackson, and Roy Butler. The quartet sang Hollywood representations of black music and dressed in costumes that depicted plantation life in the southern United States.
Introduction
- Bradley G. Shope
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- American Popular Music in Britain's Raj
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Summary
On July 8, 1865, the Englishman newspaper reviewed a performance by blackface minstrel showman Dave Carson at the Town Hall in Bombay. Carson was from Montana in the United States, and he had arrived in India with the San Francisco Minstrels four years earlier. That month, Bombay was at the center of a financial crisis caused by the price of cotton. The American Civil War (1861–65) decreased cotton exports from the United States and increased their value in India, and speculators in Bombay bet that the price of cotton shares would remain consistent or increase. Known as “share mania,” share values increased substantially until April 1865, when the exuberance suddenly ended. On the other side of the world the Confederate armies surrendered to the Union forces to end the war. US cotton exports suddenly had the potential to reach prewar levels as the American industry regained its footing. The price of cotton in India plummeted.
The speculative economy structured to support the exchange of these commodities in Bombay collapsed on July 1, 1865, and cotton shares became almost unsellable. Banks, financial associations, insurance companies, joint-stock companies, law firms, and many other financial institutions failed, and the personal wealth of large numbers of businesspeople in Bombay declined. Dave Carson's blackface minstrel productions were known for their raucous ridicule of local people and recent events, and his performances in early July parodied the irrationality of the crash mere days after its highpoint. He entertained audiences of professional and middleclass patrons, including Europeans, British, and Indians. The Englishman review of his performance directly references the financial crisis, and even jokes about it:
Dave Carson himself was as brilliant and as brimful of local hits as ever. His songs in illustration of the crisis now existing in Bombay, though extravagantly comic in their way, yet possessed a touch of the tragic in them, which, no doubt, many present felt, by sad experience, as in reality, the relation of an “ever true tale.” We hear that the demands for tickets to each performance are so numerous, that the company intend making a longer stay amongst us than they at first anticipated. On the whole, it appears to be a far better “spec” [speculation] to turn “minstrel,” than anything else on the cards.
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Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. 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Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. 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Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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