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- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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- 03 February 2022, pp 5-6
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1 - Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland and the Latin West
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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- 03 February 2022, pp 31-44
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Summary
Though Ireland was never properly a part of the Roman Empire, it was a part of the Roman frontier. The extent of exchange and interaction with Britain and the Continent justifies our consideration of Ireland in the context of Late Antiquity as early as the third century CE. Elva Johnston has noted that the fifth century has served as ‘a chronological boundary’ and, as a result, ‘early Irish historical scholarship is greatly invested in analyzing conversion, Christianization and changing religious affiliations’, rarely treating the earlier period. Johnston has challenged the tendency of Irish historians to view Ireland as isolated from the Roman world and has argued that it should be viewed in a comparative context and as a frontier of the Empire. She writes of Roman frontiers that ‘They are no longer viewed as lines on a map, as hard borders defended by large-scale fortifications … instead they are seen as zones of complex cultural, economic, and military interaction’. The influence and reception of Roman, Gallo-Roman, and Romano-British culture along Irish transmarine frontier zones is witnessed in the archaeological record and includes decoration, ornament, and, of greatest significance to the current study, literacy, ogham being the primary example.
It is clear now that Christianity and its literate culture arrived in Ireland at an early date, likely by way of Roman Britain. The Romans had arrived in what they would call the Roman province of Britannia as early as 55 or 54 BCE, as Julius Caesar reports in his Gallic Wars. However, the Roman presence would not endure until 43 CE when Roman emperor Claudius, in front of 200,000 soldiers, invaded the island from the south. The Romans would gradually take control of much of Britain over the coming decades. The Roman presence in Britain was naturally to spread to the near neighbours in Ireland.
The archaeological evidence shows that the Irish were involved in maritime trade with Romano-British and Spanish traders, and perhaps even traders from the Mediterranean world, as early as the later fourth or early fifth century CE. Burials in the Roman fashion, found scattered along the eastern coastal region, provide evidence that Romans may have resided in Ireland as early as the first or second century CE.
5 - The Hisperica famina
- Brian James Stone
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- Book:
- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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- 03 February 2022, pp 155-190
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Summary
The Hisperica famina (‘Western Orations’) (hereafter Hisperica) are a seventh-century collection of fascinating, Latin orations that constitute a school textbook on rhetoric and composition. Similar to several other extant ‘hisperic’ texts written in a unique form of Hiberno-Latin, they invoke neologism and archaic vocabulary, draw on Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic, and employ terms in unique ways. Their influence was widespread, and a number of insular compositions are believed indebted to the hisperic style they demonstrate. For example, Máeldub likely imparted knowledge of the Hisperica to Aldhelm while he was a student at Malmesbury, and their influence is evidenced in his De virginitate, Aenigmata, and epistle to Eahfrid. Due to their gratuitous artificiality, deliberate obscurity, extreme invective, and outlandish style an argument can be made that the Hisperica are evidence of the continuation of the so-called ‘third sophistic’ that developed in the late antique and early medieval west. Or, perhaps they could be placed alongside other hisperic texts in a ‘Celtic’ or ‘Insular’ sophistic in the seventh and eighth centuries. Second Sophistic rhetoric in the Latin ‘Silver Age’ tended towards heightened, superficial style, bombast, and strange vocabulary, including graecism and archaism, and later writers are sometimes identified as part of a third sophistic. Rather than evidence of a decline in literary and rhetorical style, the rhetoric of the second and third sophistic reveal the social and cultural values of the learned classes from which it emerged, and hisperic style reveals much about the stylistic values of the early medieval Irish. Aside from the exemplary studies discussed below, hisperic Latin has in large part escaped the notice of rhetorical studies.
The A-Text of the Hisperica likely dates to the mid-seventh century and is certainly the work of an Irish milieu. As a terminus post quem, Andy Orchard suggests the writings of Isidore, indicating composition in the first half of the seventh century at the earliest, and a terminus ante quem based on the writings of Aldhelm, who appears to imitate them in his fixed patterns of syntax, indicating the late seventh century. Michael Herren also argues that the Hisperica influenced the Lorica of Laidcen (d. 661 CE), providing further evidence for a late seventh-century date. As for the text's Irish provenance, P. Grosjean was the first to note the influence of Irish on some of the faminator's coinages, and most commentators now agree the text is an Irish production.
Index
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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- 03 February 2022, pp 271-275
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Conclusion and Considerations for Further Study
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 03 February 2022, pp 235-238
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Summary
The history of rhetorical traditions in Ireland is one that is slowly forming but that offers much promise. The scope of the vernacular and Latin learned tradition from the seventh century forward is wide-ranging, including grammars, learned handbooks, letters, liturgical texts, hagiography, lawtexts, genealogy, lore of place-name, verse, and pseudo-history. As primary scholarship advances new editions and translations, the door is opened for scholars in adjacent fields, and Ireland should no longer escape the attention of rhetorical studies. Below, I briefly review some of the texts mentioned in the preceding chapters only as a representative sample of areas ripe for rhetorical inquiry.
The writings of Columbanus offer important insight into rhetorical education in the sixth and seventh centuries not only in Ireland, but in continental centres of learning. In addition to his letters, sermons, and hymns, there remain unedited and untranslated manuscripts associated with Columbanian circles on the continent, works associated with rhetorical learning, and more that is yet to be discovered. Several hagiographic works, including the Life of Columbanus (and the writings of Adomnán generally) and the Latin and vernacular lives of Patrick, will also prove to be of value in our pursuits, as epideictic and other rhetorical genres inform their composition. The examples from early Ireland are plentiful, and such studies are wanting.
There are a number of Irish learned Christian poems that demonstrate a special interest in language, especially, ‘Versus Cuiusdam Scotti de Alphabeto’, ‘Aipgitir Chrábaid’, ‘Interpretatio mystica progenitorum Domini Iesu Christi’ of Ailerán the Wise, De Mirabiilibus sacrae scripturae, and the Carmen Paschale. Though these poems have in part been the subject of stylistic studies, much remains to be done regarding linguistic theories preserved therein, including the rhetorical.
The grammatical texts discussed also deserve further study. All of these, with the exception of the learned vernacular text, Auraicept na nÉces (‘The Scholar's Primer’) (the edition of which is incomplete) remain to be translated, though they are all now edited. The Auraicept is perhaps the most important as it is a vernacular learned handbook informed by the tradition of Latin grammatica, but rhetorical theories can also be detected. The Insular Latin grammars are all of interest, but Vergilius Maro Grammaticus's grammar proves of special interest to rhetoric, as he specifically discusses rhetorical theory.
4 - A Rhetorical Analysis of Patrick’s Epistola ad Milites Coroticus
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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Summary
The Libri Epistolarum Sancti Patricii Episcopi, the Book of Letters of St. Patrick the Bishop, is the name Ludwig Bieler gave to St Patrick's opuscula, including the Confessio and the Epistola ad milites Coroticus. Bieler constructed his edition from eight surviving manuscripts of various date but dates the exemplar to the fifth or sixth century, though the earliest surviving version was copied c. 800 in what is now known as Book of Armagh. This codex, including the Psalter, Gospels, the entire New Testament, the Liber Angeli, and the Lives of St Patrick and St Martin, as well as Patrick's writings, was written to be the personal devotional book of Toarbach, coarb of Patrick. In the manuscript, the Patrician texts begin: Incipiunt libri sancti Patricii episcopi (‘Here begins the book of St Patrick the bishop’). This section of the Book of Armagh is the work of two scribes, including the Armagh scriptorium's master scribe, Ferdomnach, and they represent incomplete versions of the Epistola and Confessio.
While the earliest manuscripts do not appear to have survived, the eight surviving manuscripts are believed to accurately represent the original exemplar, as the copies were not influenced by the romantic style of the early Bardic tradition in Ireland. Concerning this matter, Ludwig Bieler argues,
The redactor, it would appear, abstained from interference not only with the contents of Patrick's letters, but also with their style. The endlessly protracted ƛέις ϵιίρομέυη (somewhat obscured by the punctuation of modern editors), the capricious, yet always incomprehensible progress of ideas, the directness and warmth of expression, all this has unmistakably the personal touch of the extraordinary man. Even grammar and spelling, I think, were hardly touched.
Bieler's thesis is widely accepted and has helped to set aside concerns that the manuscripts, copied over several centuries, are tainted by the rhetorical, stylistic, grammatical, and thematic tendencies of redactor context. The version of the Confessio in Book of Armagh, however, does leave out an important section on Patrick's childhood sin. However, considering the propagandistic ends to which the early manuscripts were put by the hagiographers Muirchú and Tírechán in order to claim superiority for the ecclesiastic community at Armagh, that the Libri Epistolarum remained mostly unchanged is remarkable.
Introduction: Early Irish Rhetoric
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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This book presents a study of the rhetorical arts in early medieval Ireland, c. 431-800 CE. It consists of three case studies of Latinate and vernacular texts that are unique but also representative of the various strands of early Irish learning. The early Irish tradition is vast, consisting of texts composed in Latin, as well as the largest corpus of vernacular literature in the medieval west. The social and historical contexts from which this learned tradition emerged is also remarkably complex. Therefore, this study can only provide a snapshot of what is certainly a fruitful area for rhetorical study.
To begin, it is appropriate to dispel myths often associated with early Ireland. First, the early Irish did not identify as ‘Celtic’. In fact, Celtic does not designate an ethnicity, but a linguistic family. Though the early Irish spoke a Celtic language, they were culturally distinct from their Celtic speaking neighbours in modern-day England, Wales, and Scotland, and the origin of the Celtic language in Ireland is still debated, though it likely arrived in Ireland in the last few centuries BCE. Therefore, speaking of a ‘Celtic rhetoric’ is troubled from the start.
An idea often associated with Celtic identity is Ireland's isolation from the western Latin world in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Scholars who maintain this position argue that since the Romans never colonized Ireland, their ‘Celtic’ culture was preserved, under the protection of a ‘Celtic mist’, as it were. Therefore, the extant medieval manuscripts preserve something of the pre-Christian mythology and religion that would have been lost under Roman colonization. However, early Irish literature is preserved primarily in manuscripts that post-date the texts themselves, sometimes significantly. These manuscripts were composed and illuminated in Christian scriptoria, and the same is true of earlier exemplars from which texts were copied, so the extant evidence cannot be trusted to tell us much about any pre-Christian, ‘Celtic’ traditions. In addition to the Christian context of manuscript production, the Irish were certainly not isolated. Though Irish manuscripts and material culture are indeed distinctively Irish, from the beginning of the written record in Ireland in the fifth century CE the Irish maintained consistent contact with European neighbours, especially Britain and Spain, but also Gaul and Rome.
6 - Secular Learning and Native Traditions
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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This study has thus far demonstrated the ways in which the practices and pedagogies of late antique Latin grammar and rhetoric were adapted in the production of Latin learning in early medieval Ireland. As these are among the earliest extant texts produced within Ireland, they serve us well as a starting point in an investigation of this nature and scope. In the eighth century, the vernacular tradition flowered in its own right, and secular and Biblical Latin learning were integral to the production of this literature. However, there was also a learned class present in Ireland prior to the arrival of the Church, and their traditions were integrated with Latin learning in the formation of a syncretic, vernacular tradition, the fruits of which are ripe for rhetorical studies.
As was alluded to above, there has been continued debate regarding the antiquity of native pseudo-history and poetry preserved in monastic scriptoria. That debate is too extensive to treat fully here. However, it should be noted that regardless of whether we might think of the extant texts as representative of an oral tradition is not necessarily of significance. Texts that will be referred to as ‘native’, or ‘secular’, are extant solely due to the introduction of writing by the Church. Furthermore, collaboration between clerics and the native learned community of Ireland led to their composition. Therefore, what we refer to as ‘native’ must be viewed in this light; such texts are still ‘Christian’ texts. Though we can never fully understand the nature of a native, oral tradition prior to the development of a vernacular literature, it is clear that such a tradition was used in the development of a learned tradition that fused Latin learning with the practices, themes, tropes, and motifs of Irish culture.
This chapter will begin with a discussion of the school of the filid, a learned caste born of the fusion of ecclesiastics and secular scholars and organized according to a strict hierarchy. We will then turn our attention to an example of a learned text, written in prosimetric form, associated with a poetic-legal school, the ‘Nemed School’, titled ‘The Cauldron of Poetry and Learning’ (hereafter, ‘The Cauldron’). I will situate this text within its historical and socio-cultural context in order to better understand the persuasive nature of poetico-legal discourses in early Ireland, as well as its portrayal of the liberal arts.
3 - St Patrick and the Rhetoric of Epistolography
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- Amsterdam University Press
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- 13 May 2022
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- 03 February 2022, pp 93-122
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Summary
The following section seeks to contribute to an understanding of Patrick's rhetorical education, as well as demonstrate his position as an inheritor of, and contributor to, a decidedly Christian art of rhetoric in the late antique west. In order to realize such an end, the methodology employed will combine rhetorical analysis with an investigation of socio-historical context in a comparative framework. In other words, this study employs a close textual reading in order to detect rhetorical strategies indicative of contemporary trends in rhetorical practice. My interests here are the rhetorical dimension of Patrick's writings, so this chapter should not be read as an attempt to offer a complete reappraisal of the myriad thorny issues that have plagued Patrician studies for more than a century.
In this case study, I will analyse Patrick's Epistola, which provides evidence of the significant role of epistolography–a performative genre in which ritualized delivery was central–in early Gallo-Roman and Romano-British contexts. The Epistola is primarily demonstrative and in it Patrick admonishes the British Church, or a British faction in the Irish Church, to ransom slaves taken into captivity by slave raiders. However, it also possesses a forensic dimension in condemnation of Coroticus and his men who had raided, murdered, and abducted a number of Patrick's recent converts. In addition, there is evidence for the continued use of progymnasmata, Biblical texts for grammatical and rhetorical education, and imitatio, a practice that took the Pauline Epistles as the primary text of study.
The Historical Context of Patrick's Mission to Ireland
The arrival of Christianity in Ireland was motivated from the outset by political concerns. The same controversies that had drawn the attention of Rome to Britain and North Africa seem to have inspired an interest in Ireland. The entry for 429 in Prosper's Chronicle reads:
Agricola the Pelagian, the son of Bishop Severianus the Pelagian, corrupted the churches of Britain by introducing his own doctrine. On the recommendation of the deacon Palladius, Pepe Celestine sent Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, as his representative, and when the heretics had been cast down, he guided the Britons to the Catholic faith.
Bibliography
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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Frontmatter
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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![](http://static.cambridge.org/content/id/urn:cambridge.org:id:book:9789048535118/resource/name/9789048535118i.jpg)
The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
- Brian James Stone
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- Published by:
- Amsterdam University Press
- Published online:
- 13 May 2022
- Print publication:
- 03 February 2022
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This book represents the first study of the art of rhetoric in medieval Ireland, a culture often neglected by medieval rhetorical studies. In a series of three case studies, Brian James Stone traces the textual transmission of rhetorical theories and practices from the late Roman period to those early Irish monastic communities who would not only preserve and pass on the light of learning, but adapt an ancient tradition to their own cultural needs, contributing to the history of rhetoric in important ways. The manuscript tradition of early Ireland, which gave us the largest body of vernacular literature in the medieval period and is already appreciated for its literary contributions, is also a site of rhetorical innovation and creative practice.
2 - Learning in Ireland in the Sixth through the Eighth Centuries
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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Summary
In Celtic studies, scholars have debated the prevalence of secular learning in early Ireland, and stances on this matter vary widely. In 1910, Heinrich Zimmer offered up a theory for the pre-eminence of the Irish in classical learning based on the ‘direkte Handelsverbindungen’ (‘direct trading-connections’) between Ireland and Gallo-Roman Aquitaine. The wine trade with Gaul, Zimmer argued, provided the means for the exodus of throngs of scholars from western Gaul to Ireland in the period of migration. These traders brought with them late antique Christian learning, including the works of Ausonius of Bordeaux, Sulpicius Severus, and Martin of Tours.
Three years later, in a lecture given to the School of Irish Learning in September of 1912, Kuno Meyer argued that in a twelfth-century Leiden manuscript he found further evidence for late antique Gallic scholars fleeing to Ireland. Both Meyer and Zimmer believed this note to be of the sixth century and no later:
The Huns, who were infamously begotten, i.e., by demons, after they had found their way by the guidance of a hind through the Maeotic marshes, invaded the Goths, whom they terrified exceedingly by their unexpectedly awful appearance. And thanks to them, the depopulation of the entire Empire commenced, which was completed by the Huns and Vandals and Goths and Alans, owing to whose devastation all the learned men on this side of the sea fled away, and in transmarine parts, i.e., in Hiberia and wherever they betook themselves, brought a very great advance of learning to the inhabitants of those regions.
Zimmer and Meyer take ‘Hiberia’ to mean ‘Irish’ and ‘British’, and Meyer argues that in this twelfth-century account there is clear evidence of the arrival of Gallic scholars in Ireland by the fifth century. This thesis is proved, Meyer argues, in the earliest extant writings of Irish provenance, as St Patrick refers to ‘dominicati rhetorici’ (Confessio 238.23-24), those rhetoricians in comparison to whom he felt rustic and uneducated. And with Zimmer and Meyer a long debate ensued that would continue into the twenty-first century. Meyer's claims have been tempered to the extreme, but the case on classical learning in the fifth through the eighth centuries has not been closed.
Acknowledgements
- Brian James Stone
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- The Rhetorical Arts in Late Antique and Early Medieval Ireland
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- 13 May 2022
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5 - Urban Planning and Urban Design
- from Part I - Cross-Cutting Themes
- Edited by Cynthia Rosenzweig, William D. Solecki, Hunter College, City University of New York, Patricia Romero-Lankao, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, Shagun Mehrotra, New School University, New York, Shobhakar Dhakal, Somayya Ali Ibrahim
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- Climate Change and Cities
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- 12 April 2018
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- 29 March 2018, pp 139-172
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Contributors
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- By Douglas L. Arnold, Laura J. Balcer, Amit Bar-Or, Sergio E. Baranzini, Frederik Barkhof, Robert A. Bermel, Francois A. Bethoux, Dennis N. Bourdette, Richard K. Burt, Peter A. Calabresi, Zografos Caramanos, Tanuja Chitnis, Stacey S. Cofield, Jeffrey A. Cohen, Nadine Cohen, Alasdair J. Coles, Devon Conway, Stuart D. Cook, Gary R. Cutter, Peter J. Darlington, Ann Dodds-Frerichs, Ranjan Dutta, Gilles Edan, Michelle Fabian, Franz Fazekas, Massimo Filippi, Elizabeth Fisher, Paulo Fontoura, Corey C. Ford, Robert J. Fox, Natasha Frost, Alex Z. Fu, Siegrid Fuchs, Kazuo Fujihara, Kristin M. Galetta, Jeroen J.G. Geurts, Gavin Giovannoni, Nada Gligorov, Ralf Gold, Andrew D. Goodman, Myla D. Goldman, Jenny Guerre, Stephen L. Hauser, Peter B. Imrey, Douglas R. Jeffery, Stephen E. Jones, Adam I. Kaplin, Michael W. Kattan, B. Mark Keegan, Kyle C. Kern, Zhaleh Khaleeli, Samia J. Khoury, Joep Killestein, Soo Hyun Kim, R. Philip Kinkel, Stephen C. Krieger, Lauren B. Krupp, Emmanuelle Le Page, David Leppert, Scott Litwiller, Fred D. Lublin, Henry F. McFarland, Joseph C. McGowan, Don Mahad, Jahangir Maleki, Ruth Ann Marrie, Paul M. Matthews, Francesca Milanetti, Aaron E. Miller, Deborah M. Miller, Xavier Montalban, Charity J. Morgan, Ichiro Nakashima, Sridar Narayanan, Avindra Nath, Paul W. O’Connor, Jorge R. Oksenberg, A. John Petkau, Michael D. Phillips, J. Theodore Phillips, Tammy Phinney, Sean J. Pittock, Sarah M. Planchon, Chris H. Polman, Alexander Rae-Grant, Stephen M. Rao, Stephen C. Reingold, Maria A. Rocca, Richard A. Rudick, Amber R. Salter, Paula Sandler, Jaume Sastre-Garriga, John R. Scagnelli, Dana J. Serafin, Lynne Shinto, Nancy L. Sicotte, Jack H. Simon, Per Soelberg Sørensen, Ryan E. Stagg, James M. Stankiewicz, Lael A. Stone, Amy Sullivan, Matthew Sutliff, Jessica Szpak, Alan J. Thompson, Bruce D. Trapp, Helen Tremlett, Maria Trojano, Orla Tuohy, Rhonda R. Voskuhl, Marc K. Walton, Mike P. Wattjes, Emmanuelle Waubant, Martin S. Weber, Howard L Weiner, Brian G. Weinshenker, Bianca Weinstock-Guttman, Jeffrey L. Winters, Jerry S. Wolinsky, Vijayshree Yadav, E. Ann Yeh, Scott S. Zamvil
- Edited by Jeffrey A. Cohen, Richard A. Rudick
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- Multiple Sclerosis Therapeutics
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- 05 December 2011
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- 20 October 2011, pp viii-xii
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Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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