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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Feeding habits of anophelines (Diptera: Culicidae) in 1971–78, with reference to the human blood index: a review
- C. Garrett-Jones, P. F. L. Boreham, C. P. Pant
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- Journal:
- Bulletin of Entomological Research / Volume 70 / Issue 2 / June 1980
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 July 2009, pp. 165-185
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A synoptic view is given of the data amassed by WHO, with technical assistance from the Imperial College of Science and Technology, on the origins of blood-meals in Anopheles samples collected from 1971 to 1978. Attention is focused on the proportion of each sample found to contain human blood and on the problems of interpreting from this the human blood index or degree of biting-contact with man exhibited by vector populations. The difficulties of overcoming bias in sampling, which are formidable in unsprayed areas, are further compounded where the dwellings are treated with a slow-acting residual insecticide which knocks down many engorged mosquitoes before they can be collected from their daytime resting places. There is evidence to suggest that the host-selection patterns of those vectors which are ‘opportunistic’ feeders may be heavily influenced, even from village to village or from month to month, by the changing availability of alternative hosts, particularly cattle. This suggests in turn that the possibilities of manipulating the degree of mosquito-man contact by encouraging deflection to animals (zooprophylaxis) or by measures to afford a degree of personal protection should not be under-estimated by malaria strategists. It may sometimes be found less difficult to reduce the vector’s human blood index than it is to measure it, but in view of the epidemiological importance of this parameter, suggestions are put forward for improving entomological field practice in this area. They include a quantitative survey of the biotopes available to the mosquito population as diurnal shelters, a longitudinal survey of the densities of blood-fed females per biotope, and a survey of the numbers and the respective distribution of people and domestic animals available as hosts. The work-load entailed by such a thorough form of investigation, to be repeated where necessary at different seasons of the year, underlines the necessity to concentrate efforts on a small number of localities, carefully chosen for the malaria situations they represent and the vector populations they support. A large-scale blood-meal sampling programme, confined to these selected localities, is most likely in our estimation to yield information of value for controlling malaria vectors.
The Congo Floor Maggot, Auchmeromyia luteola (F.), in a Laboratory Culture
- C. Garrett-Jones
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- Bulletin of Entomological Research / Volume 41 / Issue 4 / May 1951
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 July 2009, pp. 679-708
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An account is given of the life-history of Auchmeromyia luteola in a laboratory culture maintained in London for two-and-a-half years. Attention was centred on the bloodsucking larva, known as the Congo Floor Maggot, which is an intermittent ectoparasite specific to man. It was reared chiefly on the natural host, but a strain has been maintained on shorn guinea-pigs through several generations. It was also found possible to rear the larva on free blood.
The known distribution of A. luteola is reviewed on the basis of published records, museum collections and information from scientists in Africa. The species is highly successful in both the wettest and the driest parts of the Ethiopian region, but does not seem to extend south of Durban. It can flourish only where man occupies permanent settlements and makes his bed on the floor within reach of the maggot. Strains originating in Nyasaland, in the western part of the Belgian Congo, and in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan were successfully cross-mated and produced fertile eggs. The second generation from these crosses, however, was not always fully fertile.
The method of cultivation of the material is described.
Batches of eggs hatched 36–60 hours after oviposition when kept at 26–28°C. and 50–50 per cent. R.H. In drier atmosphere development was delayed and took from 3 to 7 days at 23°C. and 10 per cent. R.H.
The habits of the larvae are discussed and it is shown that larvae took 20 minutes to gorge (although newly hatched specimens often stopped feeding after 10 minutes). Given the opportunity, a meal was taken daily except for a day missed before each moult. No larva could be induced to bite twice in one day unless the first feed had been interrupted.
The rate of growth of the larvae was found to be strongly influenced by the feeding schedule, those receiving. 4 meals a week having a much higher rate than those receiving only 2. There was also a correlation between rate of growth and temperature but the correlation with relative humidity was less well marked. After fasts of several days, meals of the order of two and a half times their own weight were taken by larvae of all three instars.
Larvae which were fed four times a week and kept at 23°C., besides growing faster than others fed at less frequent intervals, reached higher maximum and pupal weights and started to pupate on the 26th day. Larvae fed at less frequent intervals took larger meals but lighter pupae and flies were produced.
The time of moulting appeared to be directly related to weight and only through this to the environment. The first moult occurred after the larva had gorged to a weight of 1·5–2·1 mg. (usually at the 2nd or 3rd meal), the second moult after it had reached 12–19 mg. (at the 4th to 7th meal).
There are wide limits of weight between which the onset of pupation can occur, the upper limit being higher for female than male larvae. If the feeding schedule (in relation to climate) is favourable, the larvae reach a maximum weight which induces the onset of pupation regardless of other factors. If the meals are scarce, growth is retarded more than metabolism and time becomes the limiting factor; then, the scarcer the meals, the smaller, not the later, the pupae. If the meal schedule is so adverse that the larvae cannot reach the minimum weight for pupation (about 97·5 mg.) in the time set by their metabolic rate in the given climate, death ensues without pupation.
No larva has been known to complete an instar on a single meal. The minimum for complete development in any climate is probably six meals, two in each stage. Larvae reared at 28·5°C. in 60 per cent. R.H. on five meals a week, moulted after the rd and 7th meals and pupated after the 16th or 17th.
Failure to moult, followed by death, occurred in all strains in the laboratory. It is believed that this is sometimes due to overcrowding and sometimes to the larva being disturbed when ready to moult. Inability to moult was commonest in the dry atmospheres and among larvae fed only twice a week.
Saturated air was fatal to the larva but not to the pupa. The species tolerates a wider range of atmospheric humidity than most insects, and was even reared successfully in an atmosphere of 10 per cent. R.H.
Female larvae in the third instar take more blood than males and lose more by excretion ; they also grow larger and produce heavier pupae and adults.
The temperature lethal in one hour to larvae having completed the second moult is denned within about one degree (42·5–43·5°C.) and does not appear to vary according to atmospheric humidity.
The Floor Maggot can survive fasts perhaps longer than any other Dipterous larva. At 28·5°C. and 90 per cent. R.H. survival of first-instar larvae, unfed, after one meal and after two meals, was 9–20, 8–21 and 4–21 days respectively ; third-instar larvae after moult (i.e. at 12·19 mg.), and at about 90 mg. survived 17–18 and 28–47 days respectively. At the same temperature but 10 per cent. R.H. much more weight was lost and the survival time was much less. At 23°C. newly hatched unfed larvae survived 5–37 days at 60 per cent. R.H. and 9–22 days at 10 per cent. R.H., while third-stage larvae survived 25–48 days at 90 per cent R.H. and 9–19 days at 30 per cent. R.H. Newly hatched larvae lived for 3–8 days at 35°C. in 60 per cent. R.H.
The pupal stage lasts about 9 days at 34°C., 11 days at 28·5°C. and 15–16 days at 23°C. and is unrelated to atmospheric humidity. Losses in weight at different atmospheric humidities were studied; the proportion lost was about 16 per cent, at 90 per cent. R.H. and about 25 per cent, at 10 per cent. R.H.
The habits of the adult flies are discussed ; human faeces appear to be the staple diet. The male seeks the female persistently and mating is protracted and occurs repeatedly. One male can fertilise several females. Oviposition and development continue all the year round without diapause. In the laboratory at 22–23°C. a female normally laid about 54 eggs at her first oviposition, and in one case a female laid as many as 6 batches of fertile eggs. In warm weather, the first batch was laid about 16 days after emergence (or after 20–23 days at 23°C), smaller batches being laid subsequently at intervals of 5–8 days. The female lived in the laboratory up to 93 days and the male up to 85 days.
The life-cycle under natural conditions is roughly estimated as 10 weeks, so that five generations a year might be expected.
First e-VLBI observations of GRS 1915+105
- A. Rushton, R. E. Spencer, M. Strong, R. M. Campbell, S. Casey, R. P. Fender, M. A. Garrett, J. C. A. Miller-Jones, G. G. Pooley, C. Reynolds, A. Szomoru, V. Tudose, Z. Paragi
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- Journal:
- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 2 / Issue S238 / August 2006
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 August 2006, pp. 437-438
- Print publication:
- August 2006
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We present results from the first successful open call e-VLBI science run, observing the X-ray binary GRS 1915+105. e-VLBI science allows the rapid production of VLBI radio maps, within hours of an observation rather than weeks. A total of 6 telescopes observing at 5 GHz across the European VLBI Network (EVN) were correlated in real time at the Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe (JIVE). Throughout this, GRS 1915+105 was observed for a total of 5.5 hours, producing 2.8 GB of visibilities of correlated data. The peak brightness was 10.2 mJy per beam, with a total integrated radio flux of 11.1 mJy.