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Acknowledgements
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Glossary
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List of Abbreviations
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5 - Re-Scaling Territorial Authority within Regional Organizations
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Summary
Abstract
This chapter analyses the spatial articulation of the Chinese border regime within regional development projects and the multiplication of border within the process. With regard to the case studies, I discuss the spatial selection of Yunnan and Jilin province as ‘bridgehead’ and link towards them to neighbouring countries and the wider region. Specifically, I analyse how Beijing attempts to economically integrate the borderlands into regional organisations such as the Greater Mekong Subregion and the Greater Tumen Initiative. I show how strategies of direct local cross-border interaction and ‘sites of exception’ in special border development zones constitute a ‘zoning activity’ that allows to integrate resources that lie beyond Chinese territory. This spatial re-articulation also shows how the centre-periphery relation is politically designed and assembled.
Keywords: multiplication of borders, Greater Mekong Subregion, Greater Tumen Initiative, spatiality, bridgeheads, politics of scale
Territorial authority is at the ontological and epistemological centre of border studies. How does a sovereign exert its power over a given territory and how does this power emanate? This chapter addresses the question of how the Chinese government varies the spatial reach of its power throughout its territory and beyond. Considering the relative political inattention paid to China's territorial periphery historically, its government has needed to assert coherent spatial planning in order to reintegrate these peripheries. Regional integration measures have ultimately allowed the government to reclaim peripheries as bridgeheads towards regional markets and establish them as hubs for regional trade. In this process, territorial authority has shifted. Historically underregulated political borders have become central to national economic restructuring. As border prefectures have become relatively empowered due to changing centre-periphery relations, the Chinese government's authority has grown to encompass the exploitation of labour and natural resources in neighbouring regions. Managing the various scales of political and economic activities has birthed a strategy of spatial fixes that aims to avoid ‘capitalist crises through temporal deferral and geographical expansion’ (Harvey 2003: 115). Different (sub-)national governmental entities comprise an ‘interscalar rule regime’ in which the nation state plays a crucial role as ‘scalar manager’ (Su 2012a: 504).
Appendix A - Institutional Architecture of Yunnan Province in the GMS
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Institutional Architecture of Yunnan Province in the GMS
3 - Graduated Citizenship and Social Control in China’s Immigration System
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Abstract
This chapter examines the legal framework of the Chinese immigration system since 2001 starting with a focus on how new categories and immigration schemes were created for some groups while others were disregarded. Building on discourse analysis of legal documents, academic publications and policy papers, it presents key characteristics of the Chinese immigration system, its norms, rules and historical trajectories and the different immigration labels, legal provisions and discourses that construct regular and irregular immigration, refugees, border residents and border tourists. The chapter shows that the Chinese state tightly controls regular immigration through means of ‘necessary registration’ and imposing time limits on residence and work permits. Nevertheless, with regard to irregular immigration and potential refugees, authorities apply strategies of local exceptions (i.e. individual and ad hoc decisions to maintain control over the group).
Keywords: migration, irregular migration, border residency, social hierarchy, neoliberal governmentality, refugees.
The Power to Choose
When China's National People's Congress (NPC) adopted the Entry and Exit Administration Law (Zhonghua renmin gongheguo chujing rujing guanlifa, or EEL) in 2012, the Chinese immigration system was fundamentally reformed. The law delegated new responsibilities within the political system for issuing regulations and visas, strengthened the role of local Public Security Bureaus, and outlined regulations for permanent residency. The law, however, was silent on several important immigration management issues that were increasingly the subject of public discourse, such as how to regulate ‘illegal’ immigrants and refugees. While the law omits some groups, it creates specific categories of immigrants, stipulates their rights and whose responsibility they are within the immigration system (ministerial or local responsibilities). As such, the law institutionalizes legal authority over the immigrants. However, while the law establishes a system of authority at a central national level, how this authority is challenged and understood on a local level is a different story. While legal authority is produced in the Party bureaus and ministries, day-to-day authority is produced through the manifold immigration practices in Public Security Bureaus, by border guards and immigration officers. The question what is considered regular immigration and who is considered ‘illegal’ can mean something different at the border than in national policy discourses.
References
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List of Maps, Tables, and Figures
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Table of Contents
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7 - Conclusion — Authority in the Chinese Border Regime
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To contextualize recent developments, this book demonstrates how the Chinese border regime operates, specifically by differentiating its strategies of control according to a subject's geographic location (graduated sovereignty) and immigrant group (graduated citizenship). Following Ong, governmentality is shown to be territorialized in literal zones of exception. Further, the book demonstrates how authority over state territory is graduated: the regime rearticulates the border on both a regional and a local scale through establishing Special Border Zones that provide preferential policies, exceptional immigration procedures, and additional resources to integrate the local economy and facilitate crossborder trade. The border regime can also be shown to create metaphorical zones of exception if the border is understood as biopolitical as well as geopolitical.
Keywords: exception, border, Covid-19, Chinese government, biopolitics
After the outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020, China went into a lockdown, starting in the epicentre of Wuhan and extending to other provinces and localities where local and central governments deemed it appropriate (Plummer and Habich-Sobiegalla forthcoming). After this initial phase, the central government identified border areas as a potential risk and declared a state of emergency to avoid ‘imported cases’. While the emergency level in Beijing was lowered in April 2020 (Xinhua 2020), the level was increased in border areas (Global Times 2020). The Global Times reported that medical personnel were deployed to the Myanmar border area to conduct health monitoring, along with military reinforcements to constantly patrol the border. The threat was supposedly posed by not only ‘illegal’ border crossers, but also Chinese citizens returning from abroad. Accordingly, non-essential border crossings were prohibited, and the issuing of entry and exit permits in border regions was suspended (Global Times 2020). These examples illustrate how border areas and cross-border mobilities continue to be associated with danger and met with extraordinary force. COVID-19 has shown how mobilities that for decades have been considered key to these areas’ global economic integration are in fact securitized, with emergency measures able to specifically target border crossers. However, this situation has also thrown into relief how dependent governments are on their cross-border counterparts in terms of adopting equally appropriate measures and effectively monitoring people's health in the context of a health crisis.
1 - Introduction
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The introduction starts by contextualizing recent immigration reforms in China that aimed to comprehend new regional mobilities such as increasing influx of working immigrants from neighbouring countries, growing debates on refugee and asylum internationally and within China, and especially irregular immigration in China's border areas that have been below Beijing's radar for the longest time. To understand how the Chinese border regime legitimizes which immigrants to allow in, the book scrutinizes local immigration practices in the border areas. Key research questions are: How does the Chinese border regime exert authority over the border area and border-crossers? How do the notions of national development and security affect the local immigration systems?
Keywords: border regime, migration system, border management, migration, China, sovereignty, authority
Immigration has been the twenty-first century's Rorschach test for the Chinese government. This test, in which a person describes patterns, perceived objects or shapes in an inkblot, is designed to examine one's personality and emotional functioning. Similarly, the Chinese government was looking at the patterns of foreigners’ immigration at the beginning of this century trying to grasp its meaning for the economy, community- and nation-building. The big question has become: how open should a society be towards immigrants and how open or secure should borders be? Beijing's response to an increasing global migration – like that of many other states – was fundamentally shaped by the ‘global war on terror’ and its ensuing violent conflicts, in turn catalysing debates about how borders and immigration should be governed in light of an increasing ‘risk’ associated with opening borders. Over the last two decades, many governments have struggled to reconcile the need to maintain open borders that facilitate ‘talent’ immigration while simultaneously upholding secure borders that prohibit irregular immigration; they have thus grappled with defining rules to select and legitimize certain groups of immigrants over others. Emergency measures following the COVID-19 outbreak in early 2020 showed how fragile the existing systems were: closing down borders was in many countries the first measure taken to prevent the virus from spreading, resulting in months of negotiating the risks of re-opening borders for specific groups of immigrants and travellers. As such, immigration has evolved into a meta-issue of twenty-first-century politics.
2 - Border Authority and Zoning Technologies
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Mezzadra and Neilsons's term ‘border as a method’ is used to discuss the different disciplinary contributions this book makes. The chapter explains different debates on the role of borders: (1) the border as a method of investigation, (2) as a method of social control, and (3) as a method of spatial development. The chapter introduces different forms of ‘zoning technologies’. First, literal zone-making; the fragmented Chinese political system historically used experimental zones to test policies locally. This system has created Special Border Economic Zones that create a form of graduated sovereignty by giving leeway to local governments in policy implementation. Secondly, ‘zoning technologies’ are also part of China's neo-socialist governmentality that figuratively creates zones by differentiating rights between different groups of citizens and (im)migrants.
Keywords: border as a method, zoning, governmentality, zones, Territoriality
Border as a Method of Investigation
Borders have long been imagined as geopolitical frontiers. Under the Westphalian order, it has been taken for granted that sovereignty and national security require clear territorial boundaries as well as distinctions between national and foreign affairs, and that modern societies need to be bound in ‘geographical containers’ that fit their political and social processes (Paasi 2005: 21). Agnew (1994, 2003) has famously criticized this imaginary as an idealized myth that ignores historical contingencies. To Agnew (2003: 53) the territorial trap lies in the assumption that the modern state is bound by a spatially defined sphere of influence:
Three analytically distinct but invariably related assumptions underpin the territorial trap: thinking and acting as if the world were made up entirely of states exercising power over blocks of space that between them exhaust the politico-geographical form of world politics. The first, and most deeply rooted, is that modern state sovereignty requires clearly bounded territorial spaces. The modern state differs from all other types of organization by its claim to total sovereignty over its territory. Defending the security of its particular spatial sovereignty and the political life associated with it is the primary goal of the territorial state. Vested at one time in the person of the monarch, or other leader within a hierarchy of orders from the lowest peasant to the warriors, priests and nobles, sovereignty is now vested in territory.
4 - Making Border Politics : State Actors & Security in the Chinese Border Regime
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This chapter elaborates how responsibility over immigration and border management is shared among government levels and how they conceptualise and practice ‘security’ and ‘development’ at the border. I depict how border politics are regulated in a decentralised and transnationalised system that emphasises central rule over the immigration system while deliberately allowing leeway for local actors (i.e. local governments and local Public Security Bureaus) to find solutions that are legal, yet, different from standard immigration procedures. The role of local governments as ‘scalar managers’ both within the security field of border control and within domestic development campaigns is discussed.
Keywords: Yunnan, Jilin, border security, security field, periphery, Development
To effectively control cross-border travel, the Chinese government establishes rules and regulations. In the last chapter, I showed how the border regime differentiates between wanted and unwanted mobility, creating a social hierarchy of desirability for immigrants of various backgrounds. This chapter probes the government apparatus that constitutes the institutional and bureaucratic infrastructure enforcing these rules. While the security apparatus aims to punish irregular mobility, the immigration system carefully utilizes technologies of biopolitical control to allow limited circulation and movement. These ambiguous practices ultimately spatialize the power relations between centre and periphery and between government and subjects. The border lockdown that followed the COVID-19 outbreak at the beginning of 2020 provides a crucial illustration. The swift and effective lockdown of specific border areas built on the already dense network of the border security apparatus. The lockdown only constituted a further manifestation of the overall surveillance state, allowing immigrants (including returning Overseas Chinese) to be labelled a local health threat and thus mandatorily quarantined. In the north-eastern city of Suifenhe, Heilongjiang Province, infection numbers spiked after Chinese citizens returned from Russia, resulting in a local and border lockdown in early April (BBC News 2020). Around the same time, Chinese citizens living in Myanmar tried to travel back to Yunnan despite the local border lockdown established on March 31 (National Health Commission 2020). According to an article by China's government-supported Global Times, because the border city of Lincang was a destination for returning Chinese, a local lockdown had to be instituted in early April (Global Times 2020).
Index
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Frontmatter
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6 - Local Bordering Practices and Zoning Technologies
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This chapter focuses on sub-national effects of the Chinese border regime's ‘zoning activities’. By analysing local practices of issuing permits for residency, work and marriage, the chapter shows how legality becomes a selective, conditional, and locally bound privilege. Legal and ‘illegal’ immigrants become peripheralized and ultimately remain in an unsecure state of existence. The Chinese border regime produces different legal ‘zones of exception’ by creating special border passes that differentiate both legal authority over immigrants as well as territorial authority. In the end, local authorities determine what legality constitutes, selectively and only gradually legalizing some foreigners while leaving others in a legal limbo.
Keywords: legality, illegal migrants, work permits, visa, local governments, Repatriation
A waterproof bag is drawn through the Tumen River; a motorcycle carries smartphones through the Sino-Myanmar jungle. Both transactions constitute informal border mobility. Although illegal, the local border economy depends on these forms of exchange. Oftentimes, local authorities and security agents turn a blind eye to such small offences, either because they themselves benefit from these actions or because they see the larger benefit for the local economy. While some officials connive, others develop strategies aiming to contest these informal practices or work to adapt laws according to local realities.
This chapter focuses on sub-national effects of the ‘zoning activities’ of the Chinese border regime. By analysing local practices of issuing permits for residence, work, and marriage, I show how legality becomes a selective, conditional, and locally bound privilege. Legal and ‘illegal’ immigrants become peripheralized and ultimately remain in an insecure state. The Chinese border regime produces different legal ‘zones of exception’ by creating ‘special border passes’ that both specify legal jurisdiction over immigrants and differentiate territorial authority. In the end, local authorities determine what constitutes legality as they selectively and gradually legalize some foreigners while leaving others in a legal limbo. Table 8 lists local policy implementation measures and their goals according to different target groups: border communities generally, cross-border marriages or ‘foreign wives’, border trade, and immigrant workers.
Appendix B - Institutional Architecture of Jilin Province in the GTI
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Institutional Architecture of Jilin Province in the GTI
Rethinking Authority in China's Border Regime
- Regulating the Irregular
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In the twenty-first century, governments around the globe are faced with the question on how to tackle new migratory mobilities. Governments increasingly become aware of irregular immigration and are forced to re-negotiate the dilemma of open but secure borders. Rethinking Authority in China's Border Regime: Regulating the Irregular investigates the Chinese government's response to this phenomenon. Hence, this book presents a comprehensive analysis of the Chinese border regime. It explores the regulatory framework of border mobility in China by analysing laws, institutions, and discourses as part of an ethnographic border regime analysis. It argues that the Chinese state deliberately creates 'zones of exception' along its border. In these zones, local governments function as 'scalar managers' that establish cross-border relations to facilitate cross-border mobility and create local migration systems that build on their own notion of legality by issuing locally valid border documents. The book presents an empirically rich story of how border politics are implemented and theoretically contributes to debates on territoriality and sovereignty as well as to the question of how authority is exerted through border management. Empirically, the analysis builds on two case studies at the Sino-Myanmar and Sino-North Korean borders to illustrate how local practices are embedded in multiscalar mobility regulation including regional organizations such as the Greater Mekong Subregion and the Greater Tumen Initiative.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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